Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Learning as a General Process with an Emphasis on Data from Feeding Experiments

  • Chapter
Food Aversion Learning

Abstract

General process approaches to learning presuppose that there are learning processes governed by principles general enough to apply to many species in wide varieties of learning situations. A parade example of a general process approach in action is B. F. Skinner’s teaching-machine method. This is a technology of teaching verbal materials to humans largely based on principles derived from conditioning repetitive feeding behaviors in rats and pigeons. Two leaps of faith are implicit: (1) that one can validly extrapolate from pigeons and rats to humans; (2) that one can validly extrapolate from teaching repetitive feeding behaviors to teaching verbal materials. Although Skinner’s approach is an extreme example, most experimental psychologists during the last century have considered learning to be the study of general processes which underlie a great diversity of phenomena.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Amsel, A. Partial reinforcement effects on vigor and persistence. In K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology oflearning and motivution. Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Best, M. Conditioned and latent inhibition in taste-aversion learning: Clarifying the role of learned safety. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 1975, 1, 97–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Best, P. J., Best, M., and Rudy, J. Blocking in conditioned toxiphobia. Paper presented at the 16th annual meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Denver, Colorado, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolles, R. C. Species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning. Psychological Review, 1970, 77, 32–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bravemen, N. S. Poison-based avoidance learning with flavored or colored water in guinea pigs. Learning and Motivation, 1974, 5, 182–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bravemen, N. S. Relative salience of gustatory and visual cues in the formation of poisonbased food aversions by guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). Behavioral Biology, 1975, 14, 189–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breland, K., and Breland, M. The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist, 1961, 61, 661–664.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. S. Factors affecting self punitive locomotor behavior. In B. A. Campbell and R. M. Church (Eds.), Punishment and aversive behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, P. L., and Jenkins, H. M. Auto-shaping of the pigeon’s key-peck. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1968, 11, 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, E. J. A sequential hypothesis of instrumental learning. In K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and rnotivation: Advances in theory and research, Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, E. J. Memory and learning: A sequential viewpoint. In W. K. Honig and P. H. R. James (Eds.), Animal memory. New York: Academic Press, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capretta, P. J. An experimental modification of food preferences in chickens. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1961, 54, 238–242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carr, A. F. Latent inhibition and overshadowing in conditioned emotional response conditioning in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974, 86, 718–724.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cousins, L. S., Zamble, E., Tait, R. W., and Suboski, M. D. Sensory preconditioning in curarized rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971, 77, 152–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delius, J. D. Color preference shift in hungry and thirsty pigeons. Psychonornic Science, 1968, 13, 273–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denny, M. R. Recent explorations in a T-maze: Women’s lib, long delays and all that. Paper delivered at the 46th annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dragoin, W. B. Conditioning and extinction of taste aversions with variations in intensity of the CS and UCS in two strains of rats. Psychonomic Science, 1971, 22, 303–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, R. I. Lorenz warns: “Man must know that the horse he is riding may be wild and should be bridled.” Psychology Today, 1974, 8, 83–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foree, D. D., and Lolordo, V. M. Attention in the pigeon: The differential effects of foodgetting vs. shock-avoidance procedures. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1973, 85, 551–558.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frumkin, K. Interaction of LiCl aversion and sodium-specific hunger in the adrenalectomized rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971, 75, 32–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frumkin, K. Failure of sodium- and calcium-deficient rats to acquire conditioned taste aversions to the object of their specific hunger. Journal of Comparative and Physiologica l Psychology, 1975, 89, 329–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J. The faddy rat and us. New Scientist and Science Journal, 1971, 49, 254–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J., and Koelling, R. A. Relation of cue to consequences in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 1966, 4, 123–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J., McGowan, B. K., and Green, K. F. Biological constraints on conditioning. In M. E. P. Seligman and J. L. Hager (Eds.), Biological boundaries of learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grote, F. W., Jr., and Brown, R. T. Rapid learning of passive avoidance by weanling rats: Conditioned taste aversion. Psychonomic Science, 1971, 25, 163–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustavson, C. R., and Garcia, J. Aversive conditioning: Pulling a gag on the wily coyote. Psychology Today, 1974, 8, 68–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinde, R. A. Constraints on learning: An introduction to the problems. In R. A. Hinde and J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Constraints on learning. London: Academic Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, H. M. Effects of the stimulus-reinforcer relation on selected and unselected responses. In R. A. Hinde and J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Constraints on learning. London: Academic Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalat, J. W., and Rozin, P. You can lead a rat to poison but you can’t make him think. In M. E. P. Seligman and J. L. Hager (Eds.), Biological boundaries of learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalat, J. W., and Rozin, P. “Learned Safety” as a mechanism in long-delay taste-aversion learning in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1973, 83, 198–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kamin, L. J. Predictability, surprise, attention, and conditioning. In B. A. Campbell and R. M. Church (Eds.), Punishment and aversive behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelleher, R. T., Riddle, W. C., and Cook, L. Persistent behavior maintained by unavoidable shocks. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1963, 6, 507–517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavin, M. J. The establishment of flavor-flavor associations using a sensory preconditioning training procedure. Learning and Motivation, 1976, 7, 173–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lett, B. T. Delayed reward learning: Disproof of the traditional theory. Learning and Motivation, 1973, 4, 237–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lett, B. T. Visual discrimination learning with a 1-min delay of reward. Learning and Motivation, 1974, 5, 174–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lett, B. T. Long delay learning in the T-maze. Learning and Motivation, 1975, 6, 80–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lett, B. T. Long delay learning: Implications for learning and memory theory. In N. S. Sutherland (Ed.), Tutorial essays in experimental psychology. Vol.II, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockard, R. B. The albino rat: A defensible choice or a bad habit? American Psychologist, 1968, 23, 734–742.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lubow, R. E. Latent inhibition. Psychological Bulletin, 1973, 79, 398–407.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luongo, A. F. Stimulus selection in discriminative taste-aversion learning in the rat. Animal Learning and Behavior, 1976, 4, 225–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. The mind of a mnemonist. New York: Basic Books, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackay, B. Conditioned food aversion produced by toxicosis in Atlantic Cod. Behavioral Biology, 1974, 12, 347–355.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackay, B. Visual and flavor cues in toxicosis conditioning in codfish. Behavioral Biology, 1977, 19, 87–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackintosh, N. J. Stimulus selection: Learning to ignore stimuli that predict no change in reinforcement. In R. A. Hinde and J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Constraints on learning. London: Academic Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackintosh, N. J. The Psychology of Animal Learning. London: Academic Press, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKearney, J. W. Fixed-interval schedules of electric shock presentation: Extinction and recovery of performance under different shock intensities and fixed-interval durations. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1969, 12, 301–313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLaurin, W. A. Postirradiation saccharin avoidance in rats as a function of the interval between ingestion and exposure. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1964, 57, 316–317.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mis, F. W., and Moore, J. W. Effect of preacquisitions UCS exposure on classical conditioning of the rabbit’s nictitating membrane response. Learning and Motivation, 1973, 4, 108–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, B. R. The role of directed Pavlovian reactions in simple instrumental learning in the pigeon. In R. A. Hinde and J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Constraints on learning. New York: Academic Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlov, I. P. Conditioned Reflexes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlov, I. P. The reply of a physiologist to psychologists. Psychological Review, 1932, 39, 91–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrinovich, L., and Bolles, R. C. Delayed alternation: Evidence for symbolic processes in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1957, 50, 363–365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petrinovich, L., Bradford, D., and McGaugh, J. C. Drug facilitation of memory in rats. Psychonomic Science, 1965, 2, 191–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pschirrer, M. E. Goal events as discriminative stimuli over extended intertrial intervals. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1972, 96, 425–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, S., and Wagner, A. R. CS habituation produces a “latent inhibition effect” but no active “conditioned inhibition.” Learning and Motivation, 1972, 3, 237–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, R. A. Variation in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement following prior inhibitory conditioning. Learning and Motivation, 1971, 2, 113–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, R. A. Effect of US habituation following conditioning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1973, 82, 137–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, R. A., and Wagner, A. R. A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black and W. F. Prokasv (Eds.), Classical conditioning II. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S. The role of interference in association over a delay. In W. K. Honig and P. H. R. James (Eds.), Animal memory. New York: Academic Press, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S. Long-delay learning in rats: A black-white discrimination. Bulletin of the Psvchonomic Society, 1974, 4, 526–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S. Animal learning: A review of N. J. Mackintosh’s “The Psychology of Animal Learning.” Science, 1975, 189, 131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S., and Garcia, J. Learned associations over long delays. In G. H. Bower and J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S., Parker, L. A., and Coombes, S. Flavor aversion learning: Extinction of the aversion to an interfering flavor after conditioning does not affect the aversion to the reference flavor. Behavioral Biology, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rizley, R. C., and Rescorla, R. A. Associations in second-order conditioning and sensory preconditioning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1972, 81, 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rozin, P., and Kalat, J. W. Learning as a situation-specific adaptation. In M. E. P. Seligman and J. L. Hager (Eds.), Biological boundaries of learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sevenster, P. Incompatability of response and reward. In R. A. Hinde and J. Stevensonhinde (Eds.), Constraints on learning. London: Academic Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shettleworth, S. J. Food reinforcement and the organization of behavior in golden hamsters. In R. A. Hinde and J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Constraints on learning. London: Academic Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. C., and Roll, D. L. Trace conditioning with X-rays as an aversive stimulus. Psychonomic Science, 1967, 9, 11–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, R. L. , and Corbit, J. D. An opponent-process theory of motivation: I. Temporal dynamics of affect. Psychological Review, 1974, 81, 119–145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, K. W. Behavior theory and conditioning. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1956.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Taukulis, H. K., and Revusky, S. Odor as a conditioned inhibitor: Applicability of the Rescorla-Wagner model to feeding behavior. Learning and Motivation, 1975, 6, 11–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, E. L. Animallntelligence: Experimental Studies. New York: Macmillan, 1911.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, D. W., Wortz, E. C., and Bitterman, M. E. The effect of random and alternating partial reinforcement of resistance to extinction in the rat. American Journal of Psychology, 1953, 66, 57–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, A. R. Stimulus selection and a “modified continuity theory”. In G. H. Bower and J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, A. R., Logan, F. A., Haberlandt, K., and Price, T. Stimulus selection in animal discrimination learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968, 76, 171–180.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weisinger, R. S., Parker, L. F., and Skorupski, J. D. Conditioned taste aversions and specific need states in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974, 87, 655–660.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilcoxon, H. C., Dragoin, W. B., and Kral, P. A. Illness-induced aversions in rats and quail: Relative salience of visual and gustatory cues. Science, 1971, 171, 826–828.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., and Williams, H. Auto-maintainance in the pigeon: Sustained pecking despite contingent nonreinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1969, 12, 511–520.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, E. A., and Braveman, N. S. The combined effects of dosage level and interstimulus interval on the formation of one-trial poison based aversions in rats. Animal Learning and Behavior, 1975, 3, 287–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bitterman, M. E. The comparative analysis of learning. Science, 1975, 188, 699–709.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bitterman, M. E. Technical comment. Flavor aversion studies. Science, 1976, 192, 266–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, C. S. The development of specific preferences in thiamine-deficient rats. Evidence against mediation by aftertaste. Unpublished master’s thesis, 1969, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle.

    Google Scholar 

  • Czaplicki, J. A., Borreback, D. E., and Wilcoxon, H. C. Stimulus generalization of an illness-induced aversion to different intensities of colored water in Japanese quail. Animal Learning and Behavior, 1976, 4, 45–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Domjan, M. Poison-induced neophobia in rats: Rule of stimulus generalization of conditioned taste aversions. Animal Learning and Behavior, 1975, 14, 809–813.

    Google Scholar 

  • Domjan, M., and Bowman, T. G. Learned safety and the CS-US delay gradient in taste aversion learning. Learning and Motivation, 1974, 5, 409–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dragoin, W. B., McCleary, G. E., and McCleary, P. A comparison of two methods of measuring conditioned taste aversion. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 1971, 3, 309–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Etscorn, F. , and Miller, R. L. Variation in the strength of conditioned taste aversion in rats as a function of the time of inducement. Physiological Psychology, 1975, 3, 270–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J., Ervin, F. R., and Koelling, R. A. Learning with prolonged delay of reinforcement. Psychonomic Science, 1966, 5, 121–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J., Ervin, F. R., Yorke, C. H., and Koelling, R. A. Conditioning with delayed vitamin injections. Science, 1967, 155, 716–718.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J., Kimeldorf, D. J., and Koelling, R. A. Conditioned aversion to saccharin resulting from exposure to gamma radiation, Science, 1955, 122, 157–158.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J., and Koelling, R. A. Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 1966, 4, 123–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M. Evaluating the evaluators. New Scientist, 1977, 73, 342–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, L., and Rachlin, H. Learned taste aversions in rats as a function of delay, speed, and duration of rotation. Learning and Motivation 1976, 7, 283–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalat, J. W. Taste salience depends on novelty, not concentration in taste-aversion learning in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974, 86, 47–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalat, J. W., and Rozin, P. Role of interference in taste-aversion learning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971, 77, 53–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S. B., Mikulka, P. J., and Hamel, K. Influence of sucrose pre-exposure on acquisition of a conditioned aversion. Behavioral Biology, 1976, 16, 99–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nachman, M. Learned taste and temperature aversions due to lithium chloride sickness after temporal delays. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1970, 73, 22–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nachman, M., and Jones, D. R. Learned taste aversions over long delays in rats: The role of learned safety. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974, 86, 949–956.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowlis, G. H. Conditioned stimulus intensity and acquired alimentary aversions in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974, 86, 1173–1184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S. H. Aversion to sucrose produced by contingent X-irradiation: Temporal and dosage parameters. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1968, 65, 17–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S. The role of interference in association over a delay. In W. K. Honig and P. H. R. James (Eds.), Animal memory, New York: Academic Press, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S. H., and Bedarf, E. W. Association of illness with the prior ingestion of novel foods. Science, 1967, 155, 219–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S., and Garcia, J. Learned associations over long delays. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory. Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Revusky, S., Parker L., Coombes, J., and Coombes, S. Rat data which suggest that alcoholic beverages should be swallowed during chemical aversion therapy, not just tasted. Behavior Research and Therapy, 1976, 14, 189–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rozin, P. Central or peripheral mediation oflearning with long CS-US intervals in the feeding system. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1969, 67, 421–429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rozin, P., and Ree, P. Long extension of effective CS-US interval by anesthesia between CS and US. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1972, 80, 43–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, B. B., Whaley, D. L., and Rogers, J. G. Saccharin avoidance behavior instigated by X-irradiation in backward conditioning paradigms. Psychological Reports, 1964, 14, 475–481.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. C., and Roll, D. L. Trace conditioning with X-rays as an aversive stimulus. Psychonomic Science, 1967, 9, 11–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. C., Taylor, H. L., Morris, D. D., and Hendricks, J. Further studies of X-ray conditioned saccharin aversion during the postexposure period. Radiation Research, 1965, 24, 423–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taukulis, H. K. Odor aversions produced over long CS-US delays. Behavioral Biology, 1974, 10, 505–510.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada

    Sam Revusky

Authors
  1. Sam Revusky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada

    N. W. Milgram , Lester Krames  & Thomas M. Alloway ,  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1977 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Revusky, S. (1977). Learning as a General Process with an Emphasis on Data from Feeding Experiments. In: Milgram, N.W., Krames, L., Alloway, T.M. (eds) Food Aversion Learning. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-1299-5_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-1299-5_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4757-1301-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-1299-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation