Abstract
There is a growing sense of concern among geneticists with regard to the place occupied by their discipline in the curriculum throughout the entire educational system. Surveys of genetics teaching in North American medical schools, especially over the last 30 years, have shown dramatically increasing interest in the subject (Table I). For example, the proportion of schools with formal courses in genetics rose from 8.6% in 1953 (Herndon, 1954) to 74.7% in 1978 (Childs et al., 1981). Similar studies have revealed the importance of genetics in the education of dentists (Sanger, 1980; Farrington et al., 1982), nurses (Brantl and Esslinger, 1962; Feetham, 1984; Mertens et al.,1984; Monsen, 1984), nurse practitioners (J.K. Williams, 1983), and social workers (Mealer et al., 1981; Bishop, 1984). The last decade has even seen the emergence of an entirely new type of genetic practitioner, the genetic counselor or genetic associate (Kenen, 1984; Marks, 1982, 1984; Marks and Richter, 1976).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
American Board of Pediatrics, 1980, A Program for Continuing Education and Assessment Leading to Recertification in Pediatrics, pp. 1–22, American Board of Pediatrics, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
AMA, 1983/84, American Medical Association Directory of Residency Training Programs, Section II, Requirements for Accreditation of Programs, pp. 7–75, American Medical Association, Chicago, Illinois.
Anonymous, 1971, Report of genetic counselling services in Canada, Prepared by the Committee on Genetics as it relates to problems of the Genetics Society of Canada, Genet. Soc. Bull. 3: 21–23.
Anonymous, 1983, Pediatric residency training in Canada. Future perspectives, in: Report of the Fifth Canadian Ross Conference on Paediatrics ( P. H. Beaudry, ed.), pp. 2649, Ross Laboratories, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Association of American Medical Colleges, 1984, Physicians for the twenty-first century, J. Med. Educ. 59 (Suppl. 11): 1–208.
Baird, P. A., Sadovnik, A. D., and MacGillivray, B. C., 1985, Temporal changes in the utilization of amniocentesis for prenatal diagnosis, Prenat. Diagn. 5: 191–198.
Barr, M. L., and Bertram, E. G., 1949, A morphological distinction between neurones of the male and female, and the behaviour of the nucleolar satellite during accelerated nucleoprotein synthesis, Nature 163: 676–677.
Barrows, H. S., 1984, A specific problem-based, self-directed learning method designed to teach medical problem-solving skills, and enhance knowledge retention and recall, in: Tutorials in Problem-Based Learning. New Directions in Training for the Health Professions ( H. G. Schmidt and M. L. deVolder, eds.), pp. 16–32, Van Gorcum, Assen) Maastricht, The Netherlands.
Barrows, H. S., and Tamblyn, R. M., 1980, Problem-Based Learning. An Approach to Medical Education, Springer, New York.
Barrows, H. S., Tamblyn, R. M., and Jenkins, M., 1976, Preparing faculty for innovative educational roles, J. Med. Educ. 51: 592–594.
Bartosocas, C. S., 1982, Teaching of genetics in the preclinical years, in: Progress in Clinical Biological Research, Vol. 103, Part A, Human Genetics: The Unfolding Genome, pp. 477–484, Alan R. Liss.
Berry, T. B., Vekemans, M. J. J., Lippman, A., Hamilton, E. F., and Fournier, P. J. R., 1985, Chorionic villi sampling: Clinical experience, immediate complications, and patient attitudes, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 151: 161–166.
Bishop, K. K., 1984, Social work needs in genetic education, in: Birth Defects: Original Article Series, Vol. 20, Part 4, pp. 27–30.
Brantl, V. M., and Esslinger, P. N., 1962, Genetics—Implications for nursing curriculum, Nurs. Forum 1: 90–100.
Bucholz, K. K., Hsia, Y. E., Korper, S. P., and Mick, S. S., 1980, Genetic knowledge of Connecticut pediatricians: Implications for continuing education, Conn. Med. J. 44: 1420.
Childs, B., 1974, A place for genetics in health education and vice versa, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 26: 120–135.
Childs, B., 1977, Persistent echoes of the nature–nurture argument, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 29: 1–13.
Childs, B., 1982, Genetics in the medical curriculum, Am. J. Med. Genet. 13: 319–324.
Childs, B., and Hickman, F., 1983, Human genetics: One approach to scientific literacy, Daedalus, J. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 112: 189–209.
Childs, B., Huether, C. A., and Murphy, E. A., 1981, Human genetics teaching in U.S. medical schools, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 33: 1–10.
College of Family Physicians of Canada, 1981, Educational Objectives for Certification in Family Medicine, pp. 1–855, College of Family Physicians of Canada, Toronto, Canada.
Consden, R., Gordon, A. H., and Martin, A. J. P., 1944, Qualitative analysis of proteins: A partition chromatographic method using paper, Biochem. J. 38: 224–232.
Couillan, P., Kottler-Missounier, M. L., Grisard, M. C., Hors, J., Feingold, J., Boué, J., and Boué, A., 1980, HLA-A, B, C, DR alleles in congenital adrenal hyperplasia, Hum. Genet. 53: 389–392.
Council on Resident Education in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1984, Educational Objectives for Residents in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 3rd ed., pp. 1–116, Council on Resident Education in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington, D.C.
Cross, H., 1971, Genetics for ophthalmologists, Am. J. Ophthalmol. 71: 767–769
Culliton, B. J., 1984, Medical education under fire, Science 226: 419–420.
Culliton, B. J., 1985, New curriculum at Harvard Medical School, Science 227: 153
Danna, K., and Nathans, D., 1971, Specific cleavage of simian virus 40 DNA by restriction endonuclease of Hemophilus influenzae, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 68: 2913–2917
Datta, S. P., Dent, C. E., and Harris, H., 1950, An apparatus for the simultaneous production of many two-dimensional paper chromatograms, Science 112: 621–623.
Davis, J. D., 1985, Genetic screening and public policy, in: Congenital Metabolic Diseases ( R. A. Wapnir, ed.), pp. 103–112, Marcel Dekker, New York.
Echt, R., and Chan, S., 1977, A new problem-oriented and student-centered curriculum at Michigan State University, J. Med. Educ. 52: 681–683.
Emery, A. E. H., 1982, Postgraduate training in medical genetics, in: Progress in Clinical Biological Research, Vol. 103, Part A, Human Genetics: The Unfolding Genome, pp. 491–497, Alan R. Liss, New York.
Epstein, C. J., Erickson, R. P., Hall, B. D., and Golbus, M., 1975, The center—satellite system for the wide-scale distribution of genetic counseling services, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 27: 322–332.
Farrington, F. H., Sanger, R. G., Stewart, R. E., Jorgenson, R. J., and Domoto, P., 1982, Curricular guidelines in human genetics, J. Dental Educ. 46: 184–187.
Feetham, S. L., 1984, Nursing needs in genetic education, in: Birth Defects: Original Article Series, Vol. 20, Part 4, pp. 31–33.
Fitzsimmons, J. S., 1983, The teaching of human genetics in schools, J. Med. Genet. 20: 244–248.
Flexner, A., 1908, The American College, Century, New York.
Flexner, A., 1910, Medical Education in the United States and Canada. A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching [Reprinted, Arno Press, New York (1972)].
Fraser, F. C., 1980. The role of genetics in medicine, in: Birth Defects: Original Article Series, Vol. 16, pp. 1–6.
Galdston, I., 1954, Social medicine and medical education, in: The Meaning of Social Medicine, p. 87–92, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Ham, H. H., 1962, Medical education at Western Reserve University. A progress report for the sixteen years 1946–62, N. Engl. J. Med. 267:868–874, 916–923.
Hamilton, J. D., 1976, The McMaster curriculum: A critique, Br. Med. J. 1: 1191–1196.
Harris, H., 1963, Garrod’s Inborn Errors of Metabolism ( Oxford Monographs on Medical Genetics ), Oxford University Press, London.
Hayflick, L., and Moorhead, P. S., 1961, The serial cultivation of human diploid cell strains, Exp. Cell Res. 25: 585–621.
Herndon, C. N., 1954, Human genetics and medical education, J. Med. Educ. 29: 13–19.
Herndon, C. N., 1956, Genetics in the medical school curriculum, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 8: 17.
Hickman, F., 1981, Comprehensive planning of human genetics education: A position statement, Am. J. Med. Genet. 8: 243–247.
Hoffman, G. R., 1982, Mutagenicity testing in environmental toxicology, Environ. Sci. Technol. 16: 560A - 574A.
Holden, C., 1982, Looking at genes in the workplace, Science 217: 336–337.
Holtzman, N. A., 1978, Rare diseases, common problems: Recognition and management, Pediatrics 62: 1056–1060.
Hook, E. B., Schreinemachers, D. M., and Cross, P. K., 1981, Use of prenatal cytogenetic diagnosis in New York State, N. Engl. J. Med. 305: 1410–1413.
Jackson, D. R., Symons, R., and Berg, P., 1972, Biochemical method for inserting new genetic information into DNA of simian virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA molecules containing lambda phage genes and the galactose operon of Escherichia coli, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 69: 2904–2909.
Jonas, S., 1984, The case for change in medical education in the United States, Lancet 2: 452–454.
Jones, J. W., Biebar, L. L., Echt, R., Scheifley, V., and Ways, P. O., 1984, A problem-based curriculum—ten years of experience, in: Tutorials in Problem-Based Learning. New Directions in Training for the Health Professions ( H. G. Schmidt and M. L. deVolder, eds.), pp. 181–198, Van Gorcum, Assen/Maastricht, The Netherlands.
Kapsner, C., Kaufman, A., and West, M., 1983, Clinical competence of medical students educated in a problem-based, tutorial curriculum, Clin. Res. 31: 641A.
Kaufman, A. (ed.), 1985, Implementing Problem-Based Medical Education. Lessons from Successful Innovations, Springer Series on Medical Education, Springer, New York.
Kaufman, A., Obenshain, S. S., Voorhees, J. D., Burrola, N. J., Christy, J., Jackson, R., and Mennin, S., 1980, The New Mexico plan: Primary care curriculum, Public Health Rep. 95: 38–40.
Kenen, R. H., 1984, Genetic counseling: The development of a new interdisciplinary occupational field, Soc. Sci. Med. 18: 541–549.
Kevles, D. J., 1985, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity,Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
Knudson, Jr., A. G., 1980, Genetics and cancer, Am. J. Med. 69: 1–3.
Kolata, G., 1983, First trimester prenatal diagnosis, Science 221: 1031–1032.
Krontiris, T. G., 1983, The emerging genetics of human cancer, N. Engl. J. Med. 309: 404–409.
Lernmark, A., 1985, Molecular biology of type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, Diabetologia 28: 195–203.
Levine, M. D., Gursky, J. M., and Rimoin, D. L., 1977, Results of a survey on the teaching of medical genetics to medical students, house officers, and fellows (1975), in: Genetic Counseling ( H. A. Lubs and F. de la Cruz, eds.), pp. 349–368, Raven Press, New York.
Ludmerer, K. M., 1972, Reconstruction of human genetics, in: Genetics and American Society. A Historical Appraisal, pp. 182–193, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
Macklin, M. T., 1938, The inheritance of disease and its relation to the practice of medicine, Med. Woman’s J. 45: 85–96.
Mandrup-Poulsen, T., Owerbach, D., Nemp, J., Johansen, K., Ingerslev, J., and Tybjaerg Hansen, A., 1985, Insulin-gene flanking sequences, diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis: A review, Diabetologia 28: 556–564.
Marks, J. H., 1982, Teaching human genetics to nonphysician health personnel, in: Progress in Clinical Biological Research, Vol. 103, Part A, Human Genetics: The Unfolding Genome, pp. 499–507, Alan R. Liss, New York.
Marks, J. H., 1984, The genetic counselor, in: Birth Defects: Original Article Series, Vol. 20, Part 4, pp. 22–24.
Marks, J. H., and Richter, M. L., 1976, The genetic associate: A new health professional, Am. J. Public Health 66: 388–390.
Mealer, W. F., Singh, D. N., and Murray, S. O., 1981, The social worker’s role in genetic counseling, J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 73: 1159–1162.
Mennin, S. P., and Martinez-Burrola, N., 1985, The Cost of Problem-Based Learning, in: Implementing Problem-Based Medical Education. Lessons from Successful Innova-tions ( A. Kaufman, ed.), pp. 207–222, Springer, New York.
Merkatz, I. R., Nitowsky, H. M., Macri, J. N., and Johnson, W. E., 1984, An association between low maternal serum a-fetoprotein and fetal chromosomal abnormalities, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 148: 886–894.
Mertens, T. R., Hendrix, J. R., and Morris, M. M., 1984, Nursing educators: Perceptions of the curricular role of human genetics/bioethics, J. Nurs. Educ. 23: 98–104.
Mertens, T. R., Hendrix, J. R., and Kenkel, K. M., 1986, The genetic associate: A career option in genetic counseling, J. Hered. 77: 175–178.
Miller, J. R., 1979, Canadian College of Medical Geneticists, Am. J. Med. Genet. 3: 11–14.
Milunsky, A., and Alpert, E., 1984, Results and benefits of a maternal serum a-fetoprotein screening program, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 252: 1438–1442.
Monsen, R. L., 1984, Genetics in basic nursing program curricula: A national survey, Ma-tern. Child Nurs. J. 13: 177–185.
Motulsky, A. G., 1983, Role of medical genetics in United States academic medicine, in: Academic Medicine: Present and Future (J. Z. Bowers and E. E. King, eds.), pp. 153–162, Rockefeller Archive Center, North Tarrytown, N.Y.
Muller, H. J., 1949, Progress and prospects in human genetics: A preface to this journal, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 1: 1–18.
National Institutes of Health, 1971, The Future of Training in Genetics: A Report from the Genetics Training Committee, Washington, D.C.
Neel, J. V., 1984, Editorial, Genet. Epidemiol. 1: 5–6.
Neufeld, V. R., and Barrows, H. S., 1974, The `McMaster Philosophy’: An approach to medical education, J. Med. Educ. 49: 1040–1050.
Omenn, G. S., 1984, Advances in genetics and immunology: The importance of basic re- search to prevention of occupational diseases, Arch. Environ. Health 39: 173–182.
Opitz, J. M., 1977, The American Journal of Medical Genetics—Forward, Am. J. Med. Genet. 1: 1–2.
Pines, M. P., 1984, In the shadow of Huntington’s, Science ‘84 5: 32–39.
Reed, S. C., 1974, A short history of genetic counseling, Soc. Biol. 21: 332–339.
Reed, S. C., 1979, A short history of human genetics in the U.S.A., Am. J. Med. Genet. 3: 281–295.
Riccardi, V. M., 1976, Health care and disease prevention through genetic counseling: A regional approach, Am. J. Public Health 66: 268–272.
Riccardi, V. M., and Schmickel, R. D., 1986, Survey of medical schools’ human genetics curricula, presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Human Genetics, Information and Education Committee Task Force, Utah, October 1985, manuscript in preparation.
Rimoin, D. L., 1970, The medical genetics clinic and community health, in: Birth Defects: Original Article Series, Vol. 6, pp. 67–75.
Robertson, G. G., and Haley, J. C., 1946, Genetics in the medical curriculum, J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll. 21: 351–353.
Rosenstock, I. M., Childs, B., and Simopoulos, A. P., 1975, Genetic Screening: A Study of the Knowledge and Attitudes of Physicians, pp. 1–79, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C.
Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, 1984, Specialty Training Requirements, Toronto, Canada.
Sanger, R. G., 1980, Human genetics in dentistry, J. Am. Dental Assoc. 100: 889–890.
Scriver, C. R., 1983, Genetic screening: Implications for preventive medicine, Am. J. Public Health 73: 243–245.
Shaw, M. W., 1984, Presidential address: To be or not to be? That is the question, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 36: 1–9.
Shoenfeld, Y., and Schwartz, R. S., 1984, Immunologic and genetic factors in autoimmune diseases, N. Engl. J. Med. 311: 1019–1029.
Sibley, J. C., Sackett, D. L., Neufeld, V., Gerrard, B., Rudnick, K. V., and Fraser, W., 1982, A randomized trial of continuing medical education, N. Engl. J. Med. 306: 511–515.
Smith, H. O., and Wilcox, K. W., 1970, A restriction enzyme from Hemophilus influenzae, I. Purification and general properties, J. Mol. Biol. 51: 379–391.
Smithies, O., 1955, Zone electrophoresis in starch gels: Group variations in the serum proteins of normal human adults, Biochem. J. 61: 629–641.
Stanbury, J. B., Wyngaarden, J. B., Frederickson, D. S., Goldstein, J. L., and Brown, M. S. (eds.), 1983, The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Steele, M. W., and Barnhill, B. M., 1982, Lack of impact of undergraduate genetic courses on the teaching of medical genetics, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 34: 501–506.
Thompson, J. S., and Thompson, M. W., 1980, Genetics in Medicine, 3rd ed., Saunders, Philadelphia.
Tijio, J. H., and Puck, T. T. 1958, Genetics of somatic mammalian cells. II Chromosomal constitution of cells in tissue culture, J. Exp. Med. 108: 259–267.
Vowles, M., 1981, Genetic counselling for handicapped school leavers, J. Med. Genet. 18: 350–358.
Warren, J. V., Plumb, D. N., and Trzebiatowski, G. L., 1985, A crisis in medical education, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 253: 2404–2407.
WHO, The teaching of genetics in the undergraduate medical curriculum and in postgraduate training, 1962, WHO Techn. Rep. Ser. 238: 3–19.
Williams, D. L., 1985, Molecular biology in arteriosclerosis research, Arteriosclerosis 5: 213–227.
Williams, J. K., 1983, Pediatric nurse practitioners’ knowledge of genetic disease, Pediatr. Nurs. 9: 119–121.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1987 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Davidson, R.G., Childs, B. (1987). Perspectives in the Teaching of Human Genetics. In: Harris, H., Hirschhorn, K. (eds) Advances in Human Genetics. Advances in Human Genetics, vol 16. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-0620-8_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-0620-8_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4757-0622-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-0620-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive