Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sexual Differentiation and the Growth Process

  • Chapter
Animal Growth Regulation

Abstract

As adults, males are larger than females in most species with which we are familiar, but this generalization is not appropriate for all species (Ralls, 1976). In cattle, sheep, and swine, testicular secretions (testosterone and its metabolites) are associated with the greater size of males, but few discussions of growth in domestic farm animals address the total impact of these steroids on developmental processes. The influence of testicular steroids on growth and muscling during pubertal development is well documented (Tucker and Merkel, 1987), but when steers are produced by castration shortly after birth, they are not exposed to testicular secretions during postnatal development. Why then do steers grow faster and larger than heifers? A second point that has perplexed animal scientists is the inconsistency among cattle, sheep, and swine relative to body growth after castration of young males. From Hammond’s Farm Animals (Hammond et al., 1971) we quote, ‘‘While (at equal body weight) the castrated male, in sheep or cattle, has a higher proportion of muscle and less fat than the female, in pigs the position is reversed.” Trenkle and Marple (1983) reiterated this point: “The inconsistent ranking of the barrow as compared with the steer and wether is not easily explained.” We also are unable to fully explain this issue but speculate that this may relate to the time when sexual differentiation of the growth process occurs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adkins-Regan, E. 1981. Early organizational effects of hormones: an evolutionary perspective. In: N. T. Adler (Ed.) Neuroendocrinology of Reproduction: Physiology and Behavior, pp 159–228. Plenum Press, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Anfinson, M. S., S. L. Davis, E. Christian and D. O. Everson. 1975. Episodic secretion of growth hormone in steers and bulls: an analysis of frequency and magnitude of secretory spikes occurring in a 24 hour period. J. Anim. Sci., Proc. West. Sect. 26:175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbona, J. R., D. N. Marple, D. R. Mulvaney, J. L. Sartin, O. H. Rahe, T. J. Prince, D. L. Kuhlers and S. B. Jungst. 1986. Secretory patterns of growth hormone in swine selected for growth. J. Anim. Sci. 63 (Suppl. 1):228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartness, T. J. and G. N. Wade. 1984. Effects of interscapular brown adipose tissue denervation on body weight and energy metabolism in ovariectomized and estradiol-treated rats. Behav. Neurosci. 98:674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, W. W. 1973. Postneonatal testosterone treatment fails to alter hormonal regulation of body weight and food intake of female rats. Physiol. Behav. 10:627.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, W. W. 1979. Gonadal hormones and sex differences in nonreproductive behaviors in rodents: organizational and activational influences. Horm. Behav. 12:112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berende, P. L. M. and E. J. Ruitenberg. 1983. Modifying growth: an example of possibilities and limitations. In: L. Peel and D. E. Tribe (Ed.) Domestication, Conservation and Use of Animal Resources, pp 191–233. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bereskin, B., C. E. Shelby and D. F. Cox. 1973. Some factors affecting pig survival. J. Anim. Sci. 36:821.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg, R. T. and R. M. Butterfield. 1976. New Concepts of Cattle Growth. Sydney Univ. Press, Sydney.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradfield, P. G. E. 1968. Sex differences in the growth of sheep. In: G. A. Lodge and G. E. Lamming (Ed.) Growth and Development of Mammals, pp 92–108. Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, S. 1945. Bioenergetics and Growth with Special Reference to the Efficiency Complex in Domestic Animals. Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buyse, J., E. Decuypere, P. J. Sharp, L. M. Huybrechts, E. R. Kühn and C. Whitehead. 1987. Effect of corticosterone on circulating concentrations of corticosterone, prolactin, thyroid hormones and somatomedin C and on fattening in broilers selected for high or low fat content. J. Endocrinol. 112:229.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, I. J. 1982. Prenatal sexual development. Oxford Rev. Reprod. Biol. 4:101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. L., K. L. Hossner and D. L. Ohlson. 1984. Endocrine regulation of growth in ruminants. In: J. F. Roche and D. O’Callaghan (Ed.) Manipulation of Growth in Farm Animals, pp 151–178. Martinus Nijhoff Publ. The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. L., D. L. Ohlson, J. Klindt and M. S. Anfinson. 1977. Episodic growth hormone secretory patterns in sheep: relationship to gonadal steroid hormones. Amer. J. Physiol. 233:E519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. L., D. L. Ohlson, J. Klindt and M. S. Anfinson. 1978. Episodic patterns of prolactin and thyrotropin secretion in rams and wethers: influence of testosterone and diethylstilbestrol. J. Anim. Sci. 46:1724.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeHaan, K. C., L. L. Berger, D. J. Kesler, F. K. McKeith, D. L. Thomas and T. G. Nash. 1987b. Effect of prenatal androgenization on lamb performance and carcass composition. J. Anim. Sci. 65 (Suppl. 1):85.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeHaan, K. C., L. L. Berger, D. J. Kesler, F. K. McKeith, D. B. Faulkner and G. F. Cmarik. 1987a. Effect of prenatal androgenization on performance of steers and heifers. J. Anim. Sci. 65 (Suppl. 1):242.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Occhio, M. J. and J. J. Ford. 1988. Sexual differentiation and adult sexual behavior in cattle, sheep and swine: the role of gonadal hormones. In: J. M. A. Sitsen (Ed.) Handbook of Sexology. Vol. 6. pp. 209–230. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edén, S. 1979. Age- and sex-related differences in episodic growth hormone secretion in the rat. Endocrinology 105:555.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feder, H. H. 1981a. Hormonal actions on the sexual differentiation of the genitalia and the gonad-otropin-regulation systems. In: N. T. Adler (Ed.) Neuroendocrinology of Reproduction: Physiology and Behavior, pp 89–126. Plenum Press, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Feder, H. H. 1981b. Perinatal hormones and their role in the development of sexually dimorphic behaviors. In: N. T. Adler (Ed.) Neuroendocrinology of Reproduction: Physiology and Behavior. pp 127–157. Plenum Press, New York.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Florini, J. R. 1985. Hormonal control of muscle cell growth. J. Anim. Sci. 61 (Suppl. 2):21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forbes, J. M., P. M. Driver, W. B. Brown and C. G. Scanes. 1979. The effect of daylength on the growth of lambs: 2. Blood concentrations of growth hormone, prolactin, insulin and thyroxine, and the effect of feeding. Anim. Prod. 29:43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. J. 1982. Testicular control of defeminization in male pigs. Biol. Reprod. 27:425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. J. and R. K. Christenson. 1987. Influences of pre- and postnatal testosterone treatment on defeminization of sexual receptivity in pigs. Biol. Reprod. 36:581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Froesch, E. R., C. Schmid, I. Zangger. E. Schoenle, E. Eigenmann and J. Zapf. 1986. Effects of IGF/somatomedins on growth an J differentiation of muscle and bone. J. Anim. Sci. 63 (Suppl. 2):57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, M. F. 1981. Sex differences in the nutrition and growth of pigs. In: W. Haresign (Ed.) Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition—1980. pp 157–169. Butterworths, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goy, R. W. and B. S. McEwen. 1980. Sexual Differentiation of the Brain. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustafsson, J.-A., A. Mode, G. Norstedt, P. Eneroth and T. Hokfelt. 1983a. Central control of prolactin and estrogen receptors in rat liver—expression of a novel endocrine system, the hypothalamo-pituitary-liver axis. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 23:259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustafsson, J.-A., A. Mode, G. Norstedt and P. Skett. 1983b. Sex steroid induced changes in hepatic enzymes. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 45:51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, J., Jr., I. L. Mason and T. J. Robinson. 1971. Hammond’s Farm Animals (4th Ed.). Edward Arnold, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, J. and G. N. Murray. 1937. The body proportions of different breeds of bacon pigs. J. Agrc. Sci. 27:394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansson, I., K. Lundström and B. Malmros. 1975. Effect of sex and weight on growth, feed efficiency and carcass characteristics of pigs. 2. Carcass characteristics of boars, barrows and gilts, slaughtered at four different weights. Swed. J. Agrc. Res. 5:69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, S., C. G. Scanes, A. Chadwick and N. J. Bolton. 1979. Growth hormone and prolactin secretion in growing domestic fowl: influence of sex and breed. Brit. Poult. Sci. 20:9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hines, R. H. 1968. The interaction of restricted feed intake and sex on swine performance and carcass quality. Anim. Breed. Abstr. 36:267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho, K. Y., D. A. Leong, Y. N. Sinka, M. L. Johnson, W. S. Evans and M. O. Thorner. 1986. Sex-related differences in GH secretion in rat using reverse hemolytic plaque assay. Amer. J. Physiol. 250:E650.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoeffler, J. P. and L. S. Frawley. 1986. Capacity of individual somatotropes to release growth hormone varies according to sex: analysis by reverse hemolytic plaque assay. Endocrinology 119:1037.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoshino, S., M. Wakita, M. Suzuki and K. Yamamoto. 1982. Changes in a somatomedin-like factor and immunoassayable growth hormone during growth of normal and dwarf pullets and cockerels. Poult. Sci. 61:777.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hubard Ocariz, J. L., A. Littlejohn and I. S. Robertson. 1970. A comparison of entire and ovar-iectomized beef heifers treated with ethylestrenol. J. Agrc. Sci. 74:349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huybrechts, L. M., D. B. King, T. J. Lauterio, J. Marsh and C. G. Scanes. 1985. Plasma concentrations of somatomedin-C in hypophysectomized, dwarf and intact growing domestic fowl as determined by heterologous radioimmunoassay. J. Endocrinol. 104:233.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jansson, J.-O., S. Edén and O. Isaksson. 1983. Sites of action of testosterone and estradiol on longitudinal bone growth. Amer. J. Physiol. 244:E135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansson, J.-O., S. Edén and O. Isaksson. 1985. Sexual dimorphism in the control of growth hormone secretion. Endocrine Rev. 6:128.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jansson, J.-O. and L. A. Frohman. 1987a. Differential effects of neonatal and adult androgen exposure on the growth secretory pattern in male rats. Endocrinology 120:1551.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jansson, J.-O. and L. A. Frohman. 1987b. Inhibitory effect of the ovaries on neonatal androgen imprinting of growth hormone secretion in female rats. Endocrinology 121:1417.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, T. G., J. Klindt and J. J. Ford. 1987. Effect of alteration of sexual differentiation upon growth, feed efficiency and empty body composition. J. Anim. Sci. 65 (Suppl. 1):248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jost, A. and S. Magre. 1984. Testicular development phases and dual hormonal control of sexual organogenesis. In: M. Serio, M. Mottas, M. Zanisi and L. Martini (Ed.) Sexual Differentiation: Basic and Clinical Aspects, pp 1–15. Raven Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kay, M. and R. Houseman. 1975. The influence of sex on meat production. In: D. J. A. Cole and R. A. Lawrie (Ed.) Meat, pp 85–108. Butterworths, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, D. G., V. G. Smith, G. H. Coulter and G. J. King. 1979. Serum growth hormone concentrations in Hereford and Angus calves: effects of breed, sire, sex, age, age of dam, and diet. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 59:367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klindt, J., T. G. Jenkins and J. J. Ford. 1987. Prenatal androgen exposure and growth and secretion of growth hormone and prolactin in ewes postweaning. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 185:201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klindt, J., T. G. Jenkins and K. A. Leymaster. 1985. Relationships between some estimates of growth hormone and prolactin secretion and rates of accretion of constituents of body gain in rams. Anim. Prod. 41:103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klindt, J. and R. R. Maurer. 1986. Reciprocal cross effects on growth hormone and prolactin secretion in cattle: influence of genotype and maternal environment. J. Anim. Sci. 62:1660.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koong, L. J., C. L. Ferrell and J. A. Nienaber. 1985. Assessment of interrelationships among levels of intake and production, organ size and fasting heat production in growing animals. J. Nutr. 115:1383.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, V. M., B. Szepesi and R. J. Hansen. 1986. Gender-linked differences in dietary induction of hepatic glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase and malic enzyme in the rat. J. Nutr. 116:1547.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, F. C., W. J. Styles, C. I. Rosenblum, M. S. Lilburn and J. A. Marsh. 1987. Diminished hepatic growth hormone receptor binding in sex-linked dwarf broiler and leghorn chickens. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 184:234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucier, G. W., C. L. Thompson, T. C. Sloop and R. C. Rumbaugh. 1984. Sexual differentiation of rat hepatic estrogen and androgen action. In: M. Serio, M. Motta, M. Zanisi and L. Martini (Ed.) Sexual Differentiation: Basic and Clinical Aspects, pp 209–222. Raven Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millard, J. W., T. O. Fox, T. M. Badger and J. B. Martin. 1987. Gonadal steroid modulation of growth hormone secretory patterns in the rat. In: R. J. Robbins and S. Melmed (Ed.) Acromegaly: A Century of Scientific and Clinical Progress, pp 139–150. Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooradian, A. D., J. E. Morley and S. G. Korenman. 1987. Biological actions of androgens. Endocrine Rev. 8:1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muir, L. A., S. Wien, P. F. Duquette, E. L. Riches and E. H. Cordes. 1983. Effects of exogenous growth hormone and diethylstilbestrol on growth and carcass composition of growing lambs. J. Anim. Sci. 56:1315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norstedt, G. and R. Palmiter. 1984. Secretory rhythm of growth hormone regulates sexual differentiation of mouse liver. Cell 36:805.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noshiro, M. and M. Negishi. 1986. Pretranslational regulation of sex-dependent testosterone hydroxylases by growth hormone in mouse liver. J. Biol. Chem. 261:15923.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillivray, A. de la Chapelle and L. G. Brown. 1987. The sex-determining region of the human Y chromosome encodes a finger protein. Cell 51:1091.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parkes, A. S. and A. J. Marshall. 1960. The reproductive hormones in birds. In: A. S. Parkes (Ed.) Marshall’s Physiology of Reproduction. Vol. I, Part 2, pp 583–706. Longmans, Green and Co., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, B. N., A. McCracken, B. J. A. Furr and H. J. H. MacFie. 1979. Separate roles of androgen and oestrogen in the manipulation of growth and efficiency of food utilization in female rats. J. Endocrinol. 81:35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Preston, R. L. 1975. Biological responses to estrogen additives in meat producing cattle and lambs. J. Anim. Sci. 41:1414.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Price, T. D. and J. N. Wiltbank. 1978. Dystocia in cattle: a review and implications. Theriogen-ology 9:195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putney, D. J., W. E. Beal and G. A. Good. 1984. The effect of prenatal androgen exposure on sexual differentiation and growth hormone secretion in female calves. 10th Int. Congr. Anim. Reprod. Artif. Insem. Vol. 11:5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ralls, K. 1976. Mammals in which females are larger than males. Rev. Biol. 51:245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray, D. E., W. H. Hale and J. A. Marchello. 1969. Influence of season, sex and hormonal growth stimulants on feedlot performance of beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 29:490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schanbacher, B. D., W. Wu, J. A. Nienaber and G. L. Hahn. 1985. Twenty-four-hour profiles of prolactin and testosterone in ram lambs exposed to skeleton photoperiods consisting of various light pulses. J. Reprod. Fertil. 73:37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seideman, S. C., H. R. Cross, R. R. Oltjen and B. D. Schanbacher. 1982. Utilization of the intact male for red meat production: a review. J. Anim. Sci. 55:826.

    Google Scholar 

  • Short, R. V. 1974. Sexual differentiation of the brain of the sheep. In: M. G. Forest and J.Bertrand (ed.) The Sexual Endocrinology of the Perinatal Period, pp 121–142. INSERM, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidwell, G. M. and L. R. Miller. 1971. Production in some pure breeds of sheep and their crosses. II. Birth weights and weaning weights of lambs. J. Anim. Sci. 32:1090.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, M., W. Marx, H. Becks and H. M. Evans. 1944. Effect of testosterone propionate on the body weight and skeletal system of hypophysectomized rats: synergism with pituitary growth hormone. Endocrinology 35:309.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, E., P. Chandler, R. Hunt, H. Hogg, K. Tomonari and A. McLaren. 1986. H-Y status of X/X Sxr1 male mice: in vivo tests. Immunology 57:345.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slob, A. K. and J. J. van der Werff ten Bosch. 1975. Sex differences in body growth in the rat. Physiol. Behav. 14:353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinetz, B. G., T. Giannina, M. Butler and F. Popick. 1972. The role of growth hormone in the anabolic action of methandrostenolone. Endocrinology 90:1396.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tarttelin, M. F., J. E. Shryne and R. A. Gorski. 1975. Patterns of body weight change in rats following neonatal hormone manipulation: a “critical period” for androgen-induced growth increases. Acta Endocrinol. 79:177.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trenkle, A. and D. N. Marple. 1983. Growth and development of meat animals. J. Anim. Sci. 57 (Suppl. 2):273.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, H. A. and R. A. Merkel. 1987. Applications of hormones in the metabolic regulation of growth and lactation in ruminants. Fed. Proc. 46:300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Vliet, G., D. M. Styne, S. L. Kaplan and M. M. Grumbach. 1983. Hormone ontogeny in the ovine fetus. XVI. Plasma immunoreactive somatomedin C/insulin-like growth factor I in the fetal and neonatal lamb and in the pregnant ewe. Endocrinology 113:1716.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, G. N. 1985. Actions of gonadal steroids on adipose tissue in rodents. In: J. Vague, P. Bjöntorp, B. Guy-Grand, M. Rebuffé-Scrive and P. Vague (Ed.) Metabolic Complications of Human Obesities, pp 105–114. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, L. R. 1944. The influence of sex upon carcass quality and efficiency of food utilisation. Proc N. Z. Soc. Anim. Prod. 4:64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walstra, P. 1980. Growth and Carcass Composition from Birth to Maturity in Relation to Feeding Level and Sex in Dutch Landrace Pigs. H. Veenman and B. V. Zonen, Wageningen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, P. N. 1952. Growth analysis of the domestic fowl. I. Effect of plane of nutrition and sex on live-weights and external measurements. J. Agr. Sci. 42:369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zinn, S. A., R. W. Purchas, L. T. Chapin, D. Petitclerc, R. A. Merkel, W. G. Bergen and H. A. Tucker. 1986. Effects of photoperiod on growth, carcass composition, prolactin, growth hormone and Cortisol in prepubertal and postpubertal Holstein heifers. J. Anim. Sci. 63:1804.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Agricultural Research Service, Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Nebraska, 68933, USA

    J. Joe Ford & John Klindt

Authors
  1. J. Joe Ford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John Klindt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Midwest Area, Peoria, Illinois, USA

    Dennis R. Campion

  2. Agricultural Research Service, Richard B. Russell Agricultural Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA

    Gary J. Hausman

  3. University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA

    Roy J. Martin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1989 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ford, J.J., Klindt, J. (1989). Sexual Differentiation and the Growth Process. In: Campion, D.R., Hausman, G.J., Martin, R.J. (eds) Animal Growth Regulation. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-8872-2_14

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-8872-2_14

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-8874-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-8872-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation