Abstract
Thyroid hormones, T3 and T4, have been shown to play significant but poorly understood roles in development and differentiation of rodent and human brain(Lauder, 1989; Legrand, 1982–83; Stein et al, 1989a; 1991a,d; Eayrs, 1968; Morreale de Escobar et al, 1984; Garza et al, 1988; Ruiz-Marcos, 1989; Nunez et al, 1989). Hypothyroidism leads to molecular(Stein et al, 1989a,c; 1991a; Nunez et al, 1989; Hendrich et al, 1987), neuroendocrinological(Noguchi et al, 1986, Bakke et al, 1975, Stein et al, 1989b, Porterfield et al, 1981), neuroanatomical(Lauder et al, 1986; Lauder, 1989; Ruiz-Marcos, 1989; Eayrs, 1955; Garza et al, 1988; Morreale de Escobar et al, 1989; Marc et al, 1985; Legrand, 1982–83; Rami et al, 1986b; Narayanan et al, 1985; Marinesco, 1924; Lotmar, 1928; Rosman, 1975), behavioral and neuropsychological(Adams et al, 1989,1991; Anthony et al, 1991; Eayrs, 1968; Davenport et al, 1976; Klein, 1985; Rovet et al, 1987; Rovet, 1989; Man, 1971; Boyages et al, 1988; Pharoah,1984), and neurological abnormalities(Chaouki et al, 1989; Boyages et al, 1988; Delong et al, 1985; Nelson et al, 1986; Macfaul et al; 1978; Stein et al, 1991d, Rochiccioli et al, 1989) in the developing brain. Specifically, disorders of neuronal process growth and connectivity are noted neuroanatomically and motor syndromes involving motor cortex and pyramidal tracts are commonly observed in hypothyroid humans and rodents. These neurological and neuropathological abnormalities may be predicated on abnormalities in the cytoskeletal structures and in their molecular components. The cytoskeleton is a primary target for thyroid hormone in euthyroid and hypothyroid brain.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, P. M., Stein, S. A., Palnitkar, M., Anthony, A., and Gerrity, L., 1989, Evaluation and Characterization of the hyi/hit Hypothyroid Mouse I: Somatic and Behavioral Studies, Neuroendo., 49: 138–143.
Adams, P. M. and Stein, S. A., Evaluation and characterization of the hyi/hit mouse III: Abnormalities in Primitive Corticospinal Reflexes and Sensory Behavior, Submitted, 1991.
Adkison, L. R., Taylor, S., and Beamer, W. G., 1989, Mutant gene-induced disorders of structure, function and thyroglobulin synthesis in congenital goitre (cog/cog) in mice, J. Endocrin., 126: 51–58.
Allpress, S. J., and Pollock, M., 1986, Morphological and functional effects of triiodothyronine on regenerating peripheral nerve, Exp. Neurol., 91: 382–91.
Almazan, G., Honegger, P., and Matthieu, J. M., 1975, Triiodothryoinine stimulation of oligodendroglial differentiation and myelination, Dev. Neuro., 7: 45–54.
Anduze, A. L., and Merritt, J. C., 1980, Optic nerve hypoplasia with hyperthyroidism and third nerve palsy, Ann. Opthalmology, 12: 1170–1173.
Bakke, J. L., Lawrence, N. L., Robinson, S., and Bennett, J., 1975, Endocrine studies of the untreated progeny of thyroidectomized rats, Pediat. Rest, 9: 742–748.
Beamer, W. G., Eicher, E. M., Maltais, L. J., and Southard, J. L., 1981, Inherited primary hypothyroidism in mice, Science, 212: 61–62.
Beamer, W. G., Maltais, L. J., DeBaets, M. H., and Eicher, E. M., 1987, Inherited congenital goiter in mice, Endocrinol., 120: 838–840.
Beamer, W. G. and Cresswell, L. A., 1982, Defective thyroid ontogenesis in fetal hypothyroid (lj) mice, Anat. Rec., 202: 387–393.
Beierwaltes, W. H., 1959, Instituitionalized cretins in the state of Michigan, Michigan Med., 58: 1077–1095.
Benecke, R., 1990, Clumsiness in corticospinal tract lesions, Motor Control, Am. Acad. of Neurol., 47–63.
Benjamin, S., Cambray-Deakin, MA, and Burgoyne, R.D., 1988, Effect of hypothyroidism on the expression of three microtubule-associated proteins (1A, 1B, and 2) in developing rat cerebellum, Neurosci, 27: 931–939.
Benowitz, L. I. and Routtenberg, A., 1987, A membrane phosphoprotein associated with neural development, axonal regeneration, phospholipid metabolism, and synaptic plasticity, TINS, 10: 527–532.
Bernal, J. and Pekonen, F., 1984, Ontogenesis of the nuclear 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine receptor in the human fetal brain, Endocrinol., 11: 677–679.
Bradley, D. J., Young, W. S., III, Weinberger, C., 1989, Differential expression of and thyroid hormone receptor genes in rat brain and pituitary, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 86: 1–6.
Birrell, J., Frost, G. J., and Parkin, J. M., 1987, The development of children with congenital hypothyroidism, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 25: 512–519.
Black, M. M. and Lasek, R. J., 1979, Axonal transport of actin: Slow component b is the principal source of actin for the axon, Brain Res., 171: 401–413.
Bloom, G. S., Schoenfeld, T. A., and Vallee, R. B., 1984, Widespread distribution of the major polypeptide component of MAP 1 (microtubule-associated protein 1) in the nervous system, J. Cell., Biol., 98: 320–330.
Bloom, G. S. and Vallee, R. B., 1983, Association of microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) with microtubules and intermediate filaments in cultured brain cells, J. Cell Biol., 96: 1523–1531.
Bond, J. and Farmer, S., 1983, Regulation of tubulin and actin mRNA production in rat brain: Expression of a new tubulin mRNA with development, Mol. Cell. Biol., 3: 1333–1342.
Boyages, S. C., Halpern, J. P., Maberly, G. F., Eastman, C. J., Morris, J., Collins, J., Jupp, J. J., Chen-en, J., Zheng-Hua, W., and Chuan-Yi, Y., 1988, A comparative study of neurological and myxedematous endemic cretinism in Western China, J. Clin. Endocrin. Metabolism, 67: 1262–1271.
Boyages, S. C., Collins, J. K., Maberly, G. F., Jupp, J. J., Morris, J., and Eastman, C. J., 1989, Iodine deficiency impairs intellectual and neuromotor development in apparently-normal persons: A study of rural inhabitants of north-central China, Med. J. of Australia, 150: 676–77.
Brady, S. T., 1985, Axonal transport: Methods and applications, in:“Neuromethods I: General Methods,” Boulton, A., Baker, G., eds., Clifton, NJ, Humana Press.
Brady, S. T., 1988, Cytotypic specialization of the neuronal cytoskeleton and the cytomatriac Implications for neuronal growth and regeneration, in: “Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Neural Development and Regeneration,” A. Goria, et al., eds., Springer-Verlag, New York.
Brady, S. T. and Black, M. M., 1986, Axonal transport of microtubule proteins: Cytotypic variation of tubulin and MAPs in neurons, Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 466: 199–217.
Brady, S. T., Lasek, R. J., 1982a, The slow components of axonal transport: Movements, compositions and organization, in: “Axoplasmic Transport,” Weiss, D. G., ed., Berlin, Springer-Verlag.
Burgoyne, R. D., Cambray-Deakin, M. A., Lewis, S. A., Sarkar, S., and Cowan, N. J., 1988, Differential distribution of ß tubulin isotypes in cerebellum, EMBO. J., 7: 2311–2319.
Caviness, V. S., Crandall, J. E., and Edwards, M. A., 1988, The reeler malformation: Implications for neocortical histogenesis, in: “Cerebral Cortex,” A. Peters and E. G. Jones, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Chaouki, M. L., Maoui, R., and Benmiloud, M., 1987, Comparative study of neurological and myxoedematous cretinism associated with severe iodine deficiency, Clin. Endocrinol., 28: 399–408.
Chaudhury, S., Chatterjee, D., and Sarkar, P. K., 1985, Induction of brain tubulin by triidothyronine: Dual effect of the hormone on the synthesis and turnover of the protein, Brain Res., 339: 191–194.
Christiansen, E. and Melchior, J., 1967, Cerebral palsy: a clinical and neuropathological study, Clin. Dev. Med., 25: 1.
Cleveland, D.W., 1989, Autoregulated control of tubulin synthesis in animal cells, Curr. Opinion in Cell Biol., 1: 10–14.
Clos, J., Legrand, C., and Legrand, J., 1980, Effects of thyroid state on the formation and early morphological development of Bergmann glia in the developing rat cerebellum, Dev. Neurosci., 3: 199–208.
Codaccioni, J. L., Carayon, P., Michel-Bechet, M., Foucault, F., Lefort, G., and Pierron, H., 1980, Congenital hypothyroidism associated with thyrotropin unresponsiveness and thyroid cell membrane alterations, J.Clin. EndocrinoL Metal, 50: 932–937.
Corner, C. P. and Norton, S., 1985, Behavioral consequences of perinatal hypothyroidism in postnatal and adult rats, Pharm. Biochem. Behay., 22: 605–611.
Conel, J.L., “The postnatal development of the human cerebral cortex,” volumes I-VII, 1939, 1941, 1947, 1951, 1955, 1959, 1963, 1967, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Cowan, N. J. and Dudley, L., 1983, Tubulin isotypes and the multigene tubulin families, Intl. Rev Cytl., 85: 147–173.
Crandall, J. E. and Caviness, V. S., 1984, Axon strata of the cerebral wall in embryonic mice, Dev Brain Res., 14: 185–195.
Crandall, J. E. and Caviness, V. S., 1984, Thalamocortical connections in newborn mice, J. Comp, Neurol., 228: 542–556.
Davenport, J. W., 1976, Perinatal hypothyroidism in rats: Persistent motivational and metabolic effects, Dev. Psychobiol., 9: 67–82.
Davenport, J. and Dorcey, T., 1972, Hypothyroidism: Learning deficits induced in rats by early exposure to thiouracil, Horm. Behay., 3: 97–112.
Davenport, J. W., Gonzalez, L. M., Hennies, R. S., and Hagquist, W. W., 1976, Severity and Timing of Early Thyroid Deficiency as Factors in the Induction of Learning Disorders in Rats, Horm. Behay., 7: 139.
Davidoff, R. A., 1990, The pyramidal tract, Neurology, 40: 332–339.
de Waegh, S. and Brady, S. T., 1990, Axonal transport of a clathrin uncoating ATPase (HSC70): A role for HSC70 in the modulation of coated vesicle assembly in vivo, J. Neurosci. Res, 23: 433–440.
de Waegh, S. and Brady, S. T., 1989b, Altered slow axonal transport and regeneration in a myelin-deficient mutant mouse: The trembler as an in vivo model for schwann cell-axon interactions, Neurosci., 10: 1855–1865.
Delange F.M., 1989, Endemic cretinism: An overview, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G. R. DeLong, J. Robbins, and P. G. Conliffe, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Delong, G. R., 1989, Observations on the neurology of endemic cretinism, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G. R. DeLong, J. Robbins, and P. G. Conliffe, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Delong, G. R., Stanbury, J.B., and Fierro-Benitez, R., 1985, Neurological signs in congenital iodine-deficiency disorder (endemic cretinism), Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 27:317-.
Dememes, D., Dechesne, C., LeGrand, C., and Sans, A., 1986, Effects of hypothyroidism on postnatal development in the peripheral vestibular system, Dev. Brain Res., 25: 147–152.
Demeyer, W., 1967, Ontogenesis of the rat corticospinal tract, Arch. Neurol., 16:203–211
Devries, J.I.P., Visser, G.HA., and Prechtl, H.F.R., 1982, The emergence of fetal behavior I. Quantitative aspects, Early Hum. Devel., 7: 301–322.
Diamond, D.J. and Goodman, H.M., 1985, Regulation of growth hormone messenger RNA synthesis by dexamethasone and triiodothyronine transcriptional rate and mRNA stability changes in pituitary tumor cells, J. Molec. Biol., 181: 41–62, 1985.
Donatelle, J. M., 1977, Growth of the corticospinal tract and the development of placing reactions in the postnatal rat, J. Comp. Neur., 175: 207–232.
Drubin, D., Kobayashi, S., Kellogg, D., and Kirschner, M., 1988, Regulation of microtubule protein levels during cellular morphogenesis in nerve growth factor-treated PC12 cells, J. Cell. Biol., 106: 1583–1591.
Drubin, D. G., Feinstein, S. C., Shooter, E. M., and Kirschner, M. W., 1985, Nerve growth factor-induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells involves the coordinate induction of microtubule assembly and assembly-promoting factors, J. Cell Biol., 101: 1799–1807.
Dumont, J. E„ Vassart, G., and Refetoff, S., 1989, Thyroid disorders, in: “Metabolic Basis of Inherited Diseases,” 6th ed., Scriver, C. R., Beaudet, A. L, Sly, W. S., Valle, D., eds., McGraw Hill, New York.
Dussault, J. H., Action of thyroid hormones on brain development, in: “Research in Congenital Hypothyroidism,” F. Delange, D. A. Fisher, and D. Glinoer, eds., Plenum Press, New York, 95–102.
Dussault, J. H., Glorieux, J., Letarte, J., Guyda, H., and Morissette, J., 1983, The mental development at 3 years of age of hypothyroid infants detected by the Quebec Screening program, in: “Congenital Hypothyroidism,” J. H. Dussault and P. Walker, eds., M. Dekker, Inc., New York.
Dyck P.J., Lambert, E.H., 1970, Polyneuropathy associated with hypothyroidism, J Neuropath Exp Neurol, 24: 631–658.
Eayrs, J.T., 1968. Developmental Relationships Between Brain and Thyroid, in: “Endocrinol. and Human Behavior,” R. P. Michael, ed., Oxford University Press, New York.
Eayrs, J.T., 1955, The cerebral cortex of normal and hypothyroid rats, Acta Anat., 25: 160–1832.
Eayrs, J. T. and Lishman, W. A., 1955, The maturation of behavior in hypothyroidism and starvation, Br. J. Animal Behay., 3: 17–24.
Faivre C., Legrand C., and Rabie A., 1984, In purkinje cell dendrites of the young rat, thyroid hormone controls the resistance of microtubules to fixation at low temperature, Int. J. Dev. Neurosci., 2: 427–436.
Faivre, C., Legrand, C., and Rabie, A., 1983, Effects of thyroid deficiency and corrective effects of thyroxine on microtubules and mitochondria in cerebellar purkinje cell dendrites of developing rats, Dev. Brain. Res., 3: 21–30.
Farmer, S., Robinson, G., Mbangkollo, D., Bond, J., Knight, G., Fenton, M., and Berkowitz, E., 1986, Differential expression of the ß tubulin multigene family during rat brain development, Ann. NY Acad. of Sci., 466: 41–50.
Fernyhough, P., Mill, J. F., Roberts, J. L., and Ishii, D. N., 1989, Stabilization of tubulin mRNAs by insulin and insulin-like growth factor I during neurite formation, Mol. Brain Res., 6: 109–120.
Fierro-Benitez, R., Cazar, R., Sandoval, H., Fierro-Renoy F., et al, Early correction of iodine deficiency and late effects on psychomotor capabilities and migration in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G. R. DeLong, J. Robbins, and P. G. Conliffe, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Fisher, D. A. and Foley, B. L., 1989, Early treatment of congenital hypothyroidism, Pediatrics, 83: 785–789.
Fisher, D. A. and Klein, A. H., 1981, Thyroid development and disorders of thyroid function in the newborn, NEJM, 304: 702–712.
Fisher, A. A., 1989, Development of fetal thyroid system control, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G. R. DeLong, J. Robbins, and P. G. Conliffe, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Fox, S. R. and Pfaff, D., 1987, Differential expression within neurons and glia of mRNA encoding a putative thyroid hormone receptQr(cErbA1), Soc. Neurosci. Abstr., 13 (1): 376.
Freeman, J. M. and Nelson, K. B., 1988, Intrapartum asphyxia and cerebral palsy, Pediatrics, 82: 240–249.
Freund, H. J., 1987, Differential effects of cortical lesions in humans, in: “Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex,” R. Porter and C. G. Phillips, eds., A. Wiley-Interscience Publication, New York.
Garcia, C. A. and Fleming, R. H., 1977, Reversible corticospinal tract disease due to hyperthyroidism, Arch, Neurol., 34: 647–648.
Garner, J. A. and Lasek, R. J., 1981, Clathrin is axonally transported as part of slow component b: The microfilament complex, J. Cell Biol., 88: 172–178.
Garza, R., Dussault, J. H., and Puymirat, J., 1988, Influence of triiodothyronine on the morphological and biochemical development of fetal brain acetylcholinesterase-postive neurons cultured in a chemically defined medium, Dev. Br, Res., 43: 287–297.
Gerard, C. M., Lefort, A., Christophe, D., Libert, F., Van Sande, J., Dumont, J. E., and Vassart, G., 1989, Control of thyroperoxidase and thyroglobulin transcription by cAMP: Evidence for distinct regulatory mechanisms, Mol. Endocrinol., 3: 2110–2118.
Gilman, A. G., 1989, G proteins and regulation of adenylyl cyclase, JAMA, 262: 1819–1825.
Giroud, M., Enenbaum, D., D’Athis, P., Dumas, R., and Nivelon, J. L., 1988, Neurophysiological study of peripheral nerves in newborn infants with congenital hypothyroidism. Value in the surveillance of replacement therapy, Arch. Francaises De Pediatric, 45: 175–79.
Glorieux, J., 1989, Mental development of patients with congenital hypothyroidism detected by screening.(Quebec experience), in: “Research in Congenital Hypothyroidism,” DeLange, D. A. Fisher, and D. Glinoer, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Gonzales, L. W. and Geel, S. E., 1978, Quantitation and characterization of brain tubulin (colchicine-binding activity) in developing hypothyroid rats, J. Neurochem., 30: 237–245.
Gottesfeld, Z., Garcia, C. J., and Chronister, R. B., 1987, Perinatal, not adult, hypothyroidism suppresses dopaminergic axon sprouting in the deafferented olfactory tubercle of adult rat, J. Neurosci. Res., 18: 568–73.
Gould, E., Frankfurth, M., Westlind-Danielsson, A., and McEwen, B. D., 1990, Developing forebrain astrocytes are sensitive to thyroid hormone, Glia, 3 (4): 283–92.
Gross, H., Jellinger, K., Kaltenback, E., and Rett, E., 1968, Infantile cerebral disorders: clinical-neuropathological correlations to elucidate the aetiological factors, J. Neurol. Sci., 7: 551.
Hadjzadeh, M., Sinha, A.K., Pickard, M.R., and Ekins, R.P., 1990, Effect of maternal hypothyroxinaemia in the rat on brain biochemistry in adult progeny, J. Neurochem., In Press.
Havercroft, J. C. and Cleveland, D. W., 1984, Programmed expression of ß-tubulin genes during development and differentiation of the chicken, J. Cell Biol., 99: 1927–1935.
Hammerschlag, R. and Brady, S. T., 1989, Axonal transport and the neuronal cytoskeleton, in: “Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects, 4th Ed.,” Siegel, G. J., et al., eds., New York: Raven Press.
Hargreaves, A., Yusta, B., Aranda, A., Avila, J., and Pascual, A., 1988, Triiodothyronine (T3) induces neurite formation and increases synthesis of a protein related to MAP1B in cultured cells of neuronal origin, Dev. Brain. Res., 38: 141–148.
Hendrich, T. E., Jackson, W. J., and Porterfield, S. P., 1984, Behavioral testing of progenies of Tx(Hypothyroid) and growth hormone treated Tx rats: An animal model for mental retardation, Neuroendo., 438: 429–437.
Hendrich, C. E., Ocasio-Torres, W., Berdecia-Rodriquez, W., and Porterfield, S. P., 1987, Brain and liver ribosomal protein synthesis and profiles in hypothyroid mothers and their progenies, Am. Thyroid Assoc., Abstract #106.
Hoffman, P. N., 1989, Expression of GAP-43, a rapidly transported growth-associated protein, and class II beta tubulin, a slowly transported cytoskeletal protein, are coordinated in regenerating neurons, J. Neurosci., 9 (3): 893–897.
Hoffman, P. N. and Cleveland, D. W., 1988, Neurofilament and tubulin expression recapitulates the developmental program during axonal regeneration: Induction of a specific ß-tubulin isotype, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85: 4530–4533.
Hoffman, P. N. and Lasek, R. J., 1975, The slow component of axonal transport. Identification of major structural polypeptides of the axon and their generality among mammalian neurons, J. Cell Biol„ 66: 351–366.
Hoffman, P. N., Thompson, G., Griffin, J., and Price, D., 1985, Changes in neurofilament transport coincide temporally with alteration in the caliber of axons in regenerating motor fibers, J. Cell Biol., 101: 1332–1340.
Hoskins, S. G. and Grobstein, P., 1983, Induction of the ipsilateral retinothalamic projection in Xenopus laevis by thyroxine, Nature, 307: 730–733.
Hoyle, H. D. and Raff, E. C., 1990, Two drosophila beta tubulin isoforms are not functionally equivalent, J. Cell Biol., 111: 1009–1026.
Hulse, A., 1987, Congenital hypothyroidism and neurological development, J. Child Psychol. Psychia., 24: 629–635.
Jeantet, C. and Gros, F., 1981, One tubulin subunit accumulates during neurite outgrowth in mouse neuroblastoma cells, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun„ 103: 1035–1043.
Jia-Liu, L., Zhong-Jie, Z., Zhon-Fu, S., Jia-Ziu, Z., Yu-Bin, T., and Bin-Zhon, C., 1989, Influence of iodine deficiency of human fetal thyroid gland and brain, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G. R. DeLong, J. Robbins, and P. G. Conliffe, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Jianquan, L., Xin, W., Yuquin, Y., Kewei, W., Dakai, Q., Zhenfu, X., and Jim, W., 1985, The effects on fetal brain development in the rat of a severely iodine deficient diet derived from an endemic area: observations on the first generation, Neuropath. Appl. Neurobiol., 12: 261–276.
Job, J. C., Canlorbe, P., Thomassin, N., and Vassal, J., 1969, L’hypothyroidie infantile a debut precoce avec glande en place, fixation fiable de radioiode et defaut de reponse a la thyrostimuline, Ann. Endocrinol., 30: 696–701.
Jones, E. C., 1981, Development of connectivity in the cerebral cortex, in: “Studies in Developmental Neurobiology,” W.M. Cowan, eds., Oxford University Press, New York.
Johanson, I. B., Turkewitz, G., and Hamburgh, M., 1980, Development of home orientation in hypothyroid and hyperthyroid rat pups, Devl. Psychobiol., 13: 331–342.
Jones, E. G., Schreyer, D. J., and Wise, S. P., 1982, Growth and maturation of the rat corticospinal tract, Prog. Br. Res., 57: 361–379.
Ketelbant-Balasse, P., Glinoer, D., and Neve, P., 1975, Ultrastructural aspects of the thyroid in a case of human congenital goitre with cretinism, Path. Europ., 10: 155–165.
Klein, R.Z., 1985, Infantile Hypothyroidism then and now the results of neonatal screening, Curr. Prob. Ped., 15: 1–58.
Kristt, D. A., 1978, Neuronal differentiation in somatosensory cortex of the rat. I. Relationship to synaptogenesis in the first postnatal week, Brain Res, 150: 467–486.
Kudrjacev, T., 1978, Neurologic complications of thyroid dysfunction, Adv. Neurol., 19: 619–636.
Kuypers, H. G. F. M., 1985, The anatomical and functional organization of the motor system, in: “Scientific Basis of Clinical Neurology,” M. Swash and C. Kennard, eds., Churchill Livingstone, New York.
Larsen, P. R., 1989, Maternal thyroxine and congenital hypothroidism, NEJM, 321: 44–46.
Lasek, R. J., 1988, Studying the intrinsic determinants of neuronal form and function, in: Intrinsic Determinants of Neuronal Form and Function, R. J. Lasek, ed., A. R. Liss, Inc., New York.
Lasek, R. J., Garner, J. A., and Brady, S. T., 1984, Axonal transport of the cytoplasmic matrix, J. Cell Biol., 99: 212s - 221s.
Lasek, R. J. and Brady, S. T., 1982, The structural hypothesis of axonal transport: Two classes of moving elements, in: “Axoplasmic Transport,” Weiss, D. G., ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Lauder J.M. and Krebs, H., 1986, Do neurotransmitters, neurohumors, and hormones specify critical periods? in: “Developmental Neuropsychobiology,” W. T. Greenough, J. M. Jurask, eds., Academic Press, New York.
Lauder, J.M., 1989. Thyroid influences on the developing cerebellum and hippocampus of the rat, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” Plenum Press, New York, G. R. DeLong, J. Robbins, and P. G. Condliffe, eds., New York.
Lee, M. K., Tuttle, J. B., Rebhun, L. K., Cleveland, D. W., and Frankfurter, Anthony, 1990, The expression and posttranslational modification of a neuron-specific ß-tubulin isotype during chick embryogenesis, Cell Motility and the Cytoskeleton, 17: 118–132.
Lee, V., L. Otvos, M. Carden, M. Hollosi, B. Dietzschold and R I azzarini,1988, Identification of the major multiphosphorylation site in mammalian neurofilaments, Proc Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85: 1998–2002.
Legrand, J., 1982–1983, Hormones thyroidiennes et maturation du systeme nerveux, J. Physiol., Paris 78: 603–652.
Lemire, R. J., Loeser, J. D., Leech, R. W., and Alvord, E. C., 1975, Normal and abnormal development of the human nervous system, Harper Row, New York.
Letarte, J. and Franchi, S. L., 1983, Clinical features of congenital hypothyroidism, in: “Congenital Hypothyroidism,” J. H. Dussault and P. Walker, eds., M. Dekker, New York.
Lewis, SA., Sherline, P., and Cowan, N.J., 1986, A cloned cDNA encoding MAP1 detects a single copy gene in mouse and a grain-abundant RNA whose level decreases during development, J. Cell Biol., 102: 2107–2114.
Lewis, S. A., Lee, M. G., and Cowan, N. J., 1984, Five mouse tubulin isotypes and their regulated expression during development, J. Cell Biol., 101: 852–861.
Lewis, S. A. and Cowan, N. J., 1988, Complex regulation and functional versatility of mammalian a-and /3- tubulin isotypes during the differentiation of testis and muscle cells, J. Cell Biol., 106: 2023–2033.
Lissitzky, S., Torresani, J., Burrow, G. N., Bouchilloux, S., and Chabaud, O., 1975b, Defective thyroglobulin export as a cause of congenital goitre, Clin. Endocrinol., 4: 363–392.
Littauer, U. Z., Giveon, D., Thierauf, M., Ginzburg, I., and Ponsting, 1. H., 1986, Common and distinct tubulin binding sites for microtubule-associated proteins, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 83: 7162–7166.
Lotmar, F., 1929, Histopathologische befunde in gehirenen von kongenitalem myxodem thyreoaplasie und kachexia thyreopriva, Atschr, Neurol Psychiat., 119: 491–513.
Lotmar, F., 1928, Histopathologische befunde in gehirnen von kongenitalem Myxodem ( Thyreoaplasie ), Z.f.d.g. Neur. u. Psych., 119: 492–513.
Lowe, T. W. and Cunningham, F. G., 1990, Thyroid Disease in Pregnancy, in: “Williams Obstetrics,” Supplement #9, 18th ed., Cunningham, F.G., McDonald, P., Gant, N., eds., Appleton-Lange, East Norwalk, Conn., 1–15.
Maccioni, R. B., Rivas, C. I., and Vera, J. C., 1988, Differential interaction of synthetic peptides from the carboxyl-terminal regulatory domain of tubulin with microtubule-associated proteins, EMBO J., 7: 1957–1963.
Macfaul, R., Borner, S., Brett, E. M., and Grant, D. B., 1978, Neurological abnormalities in patients treated for hypothyroidism from early life, Arch. Dis. Child., 53: 611–619.
Malamud, N., Itabashi, H. H., Castor, J., and Messinger, H. B., 1964, An etiologic and diagnostic study of cerebral palsy, J. Pediatr., 65: 270–293.
Man, E. B., Holden, R. H., and Jones, W. S., Thyroid function in human pregnancy, Am. J. Obstet., Gyn., 109: 12–18, 1971.
Mandelkow, E. and Mandelkow, E. M., 1989, Microtubular structure and polymerization, Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 1: 5–9.
Marc, C. and Rabie, A., 1985, Microtubules and neurofilaments of the sciatic nerve fibers of the developing rat: Effects of thyroid deficiency, Int. J. Dey. Neurosci., 3: 353–358.
Marc, C., Clavel, M., and Rabie, A., 1986, Non-phosphorylated and phosphorylated neurofilaments in the cerebellum of the rat: An immunocytochemical study using monoclonal antibodies, development in normal and thyroid-deficient animals, Dev. Brain Res., 26: 249–260.
Marin-Padilla, M., 1970, Prenatal and early postnatal ontogenesis of the human motor cortex: a golgi study. I. The sequential development of the cortical layers, Brain Res., 23: 167–183.
Matus, A., 1988, Microtubule-associated proteins: Their potential role in determining neuronal morphology, Ann. Rev. Neurosci., 11: 29–44.
Marin-Padilla, M., 1988, Early ontogenesis of the human cerebral cortex, in: “Cerebral Corte;” A. Peters and E. G. Jones, eds, Plenum Press, New York.
Marinesco, M.G., 1924, Contribution a l’etude des lesions du myxoedeme congenital, Encephale, 19: 265–293.
Mayerhofer, A., Amador, A. G., Beamer, W. G., and Bartke, A., 1988, Ultrastructural aspects of the goiter in Log/mg mice, J. of Heredity, 79: 200–3.
Meller, K., Breipohl, W., and Glees, P., 1968, Synaptic organization of the molecular and outer granular layer in the motor cortex in the white-mouse during postnatal development: A golgi and electron-microscopical study, Z. Zellforsch. Mikrosk. Anat. Abt. Histochem., 92: 217–231.
Medeiros-Neto, G. A., Knobel, M., Bronstein, M. D., Simonetti, J., Filho, F. F., and Mattar, E., 1979, Impaired cyclic-AMP response to thyrotropin in congenital hypothyroidism with thyroglobulin deficiency, Acta. Endocrinol., 92: 62.
Miller, M. W., 1988, Development of projection and local circuit neurons in neocortex, in: “Development and Maturation of the Cerebral Cortex, Cerebral Cortex,” Vol. 7, A. Peters and E. G. Jones, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Miller, M. W., 1987a, Effect of prenatal exposure to alcohol on the distribution and time of origin of corticospinal neurons in the rat, J. Comp. Neurol, 257: 372–382.
Miller, F. D., Naus, C. C. G., Durand, M., Bloom, F. E., and Milner, R. J., 1987b, Isotypes of a-tubulin are differentially regulated during neuronal maturation, J. Cell Biol., 105: 3065–3073.
Mills, S. A. and Savage, D. D., 1988, Evidence of hypothyroidism in the genetically epilepsy-prone rat, Epilepsy Research, 2: 102–10.
Mitchison, T. and Kirschner, M., 1988, Cytoskeletal dynamics and nerve growth, Neuron, 1: 761–772.
Morreale de Escobar, G. M. and Escobar del Rey, F., 1983. Thyroid hormone and the developing brain, in: “Congenital Hypothyroidism,” J. H. Dussault and P. Walker, eds., Academic Press, New York.
Morreale de Escobar, G. M., Pastor, R., Obregon, M. J., and Del Ray, F. E., 1985, Effects of maternal hypothyroidism on the weight and thyroid hormone content of rat embryonic tissues, before and after onset of fetal thyroid function, Endocrinol., 117: 1890.
Morreale de Escobar, G., Ruiz de Ona, C., Obregon, M.J., and Escobar del Rey, F., 1989, Models of fetal iodine deficiency, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G.R. DeLong, J. Robbins, and P.G. Conliffe, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Morris, R. G. M. Garrud, P., Rawlines, J. N. P., and O’Keefe J., 1982, Place navigation is impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions, Nature, 297: 681–683.
Narayan, P., Towle, H. C., 1985, Stabilization of a specific nuclear mRNA precursor by thyroid hormone, Mol. Cell. Biol., 5: 2642–2646.
Narayanan, C. H., Narayanan, Y., and Browne, R. C., 1982, Effects of induced thyroid deficiency on the development of suckling behavior in rats, Physiol. Behay., 29: 361–370.
Nelson, K. and Ellenberg, J., 1986, Antecedents of cerebral palsy: Multivariate analysis of risk, NEJM, 315: 81–86.
Narayanan, C. H. and Narayanan, Y., 1985, Cell formation in the motor nucleus and mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve of rats made hypothyroid by propylthiouracil, Exp. Brain Res., 59: 257–266.
New England Congenital Hypothyroidism Collaborative Group, 1990, Elementary school performance of children with congenital hypothyroidism, J. Ped., 116: 27–32.
Noguchi, T., 1988, Brain development in dwarf mice, Progr. in Neurobiol., 31: 149–170.
Noguchi, T., Kudo, M., Sugisaki, T., and Satoh, I., 1986, An immunocytochemical and electron microscopic study of the hyt mouse anterior pituitary gland, J. Endocrinol„ 109: 163–168.
Noguchi, T. and Sugisaki, T., 1984, Hypomyelination in the cerebrum of the congenitally hypothyroid mouse (hit/hyt), J. Neurochem., 42: 891–893.
Nunez, J., 1988, Immature and mature variants of MAP2 and Tau proteins and neuronal plasticity, TINS, 11: 477–479.
Nunez, J., Couchie, D., and Brion, J. P., 1989, Microtubule assembly: Regulation by thyroid hormones, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G. R. Delong, J. Robbins, P. G. Condliffe, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Okado, N., 1980, Development of the human cervical spinal cord with reference to synapse formation in the motor nucleus, J. Comp. Neurol., 191: 495–513.
Paschal, B. M., Obar, R. A., and Vallee, R. B., 1989, Interaction of brain cytoplasmic dynein and MAP2 with a common sequence at the C terminus of tubulin, Nature, 342: 569–572.
Pharoah, P. O. D., Connolly, K. J., Ekins, R. P., and Harding, A. G., 1984, Maternal thyroid hormone levels in pregnancy and the subsequent cognitive and motor performance of the children, Clin. Endocrin., 21: 265–270.
Pinto Lord, M. C. and Caviness, V. S., 1979, Determinants of cell shape and orientation: a comparative golgi analysis of cell-axon interrelationships in the developing neocortex of normal and reeler mice, J. Comp. Neuro., 187: 49–70.
Porter, R., 1985, The cerebral cortex and control of movement performance, in: “Scientific Basis of Clinical Neurology,” M. Swash and C. Kennard, eds., Churchill Livingstone, New York.
Porterfield, S. P. and Hendrich, C. E., 1981, Alterations of serum thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and thyrotropin in the progeny of hypothyroid rats, Endocrinol., 108: 1060–1063.
Purpura, D. P., 1975, Dendritic Differentiation in human cerebral cortex: normal and aberrant developmental patterns, in: “Advances in Neurology,” G. W. Kreutzberg, ed., Raven Press, New York.
Puymirat, J., Barret, A., Picart, R., Vigny, A., Loudes, C., Faivre-Bauman, A., and TixierVidal, A., 1983, Triiodothyronine enhances the morphological maturation of dopaminergic neurons from fetal mouse hypothalamus cultured in serum-free medium, Neurosci., 10: 801–810.
Rabie, A., Patel, A., Clavel, M., and Legrand, J., 1979, Effect of thyroid deficiency on the growth of the hippocampus in the rat, Dev. Neurosci., 2: 183–194.
Rami, A., Patel, A., and Rabie, A., 1986a, Thyroid hormone and development of the rat hippocampus: Cell acquisition in the dentate gyrus, Neurosci., 19: 1207–1216.
Rami, A., Patel, A. J., and Rabie, A., 1986b, Thyroid hormone and development of the rat hippocampus: Morphological alterations in granule and pyramidal cells, Neurosci. 4: 1217–1226.
Rasool CG, Bradley WG, Reichlin S, Reduced axoplasmic somatostatin transport in hypothyroid rats, J Neurochem, 45: 973–976.
Rastogi, R. B. and Singhal, R. L., 1976, Influence of neonatal and adult hyperthyroidism on behavior and biosynthetic capacity for norepinephrine, dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in rat brain, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 198: 609–618.
Regard, E., Taurog, A., and Nakashimas, T., 1978, Plasma thyroxine and triiodothyronine levels in spontaneously metamorphosing rana catesbeiana tadpoles and in adult anuran amphibia, Endocrinol., 102: 674–683.
Rice, F.L., 1975, The development of the primary somatosensory cortex in the mouse: 1) A nissl study of the ontogenesis of the barrels and the barrel field. 2 ) A quantitative autoradiographic study of the time of origin and pattern of migration of neuroblaste on area SI. (PH.D. Dissertation) The Johns Hopkins University) University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.
Ricketts, M.H., Simons M.J., Parma J., Mercken, L., Dong O., Vassart G., 1987, A non-sense mutation causes hereditary goiter in the afrikander cattle and unmaks alternative splicing of thyroglobulin transcripts, PNAS, 84: 3181–3184.
Rochiccioli, P., Alexandre, F., and Roge, B., 1989, Neurological development in congenital hypothyroidism, in: Research in: “Congenital Hypothyroidism,” F. DeLange, D. A. Fisher, and D. Glinoer, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Roland, P. E., 1987, Metabolic mapping of sensorimotor integration in the human brain, in: “Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex,” R. Porter and C. G. Phillips, eds., A Wiley-Interscience Publication, New York.
Rosman, N.P., 1975, Neurological and muscular aspects of hypothyroidism in childhood, in: “The Pediatric Clinics of North America,” A. L. Prensky, ed., Saunders, Philadelphia.
Ross, E. M., 1989, Signal sorting and amplification through G protein-coupled receptors, Neuron, 3: 141–152.
Rovet, J. F., Westbrook, D. L., and Ehrlich, R. M., 1984, Neonatal thyroid deficiency: Early temperamental and cognitive characteristics, J. Am. Acad. of Child Psychi., 23: 10–22.
Rovet, J., Glorieus, J., and Heyerdahl, S., 1987, Summary of research findings on the psychological follow-up of CH children identified by newborn screening, “Advances in Neonatal Screening, Proceedings of the Sixth International Newborn Screening Symposium,” B. Therrell ed., Elsevier Press, Amsterdam.
Rovet, J., Ehrlich, R., and Sorbara, D., 1987, Intellectual outcome in children with fetal hypothyroidism, J. Ped., 110: 700–704.
Rovet, J. F., 1989, Congenital Hypothyroidism: Intellectual and neuropsychological functioning, in: “Psychoneuroendocrinology, Brain, Behavior, and Hormonal Interactions,” C. Holmes, ed., Springer-Verlag, New York.
Rudy, J. W. and Stadler-Morris S., Albert P., 1987, Ontogeny of spatial navigation behaviors in the rat: dissociation of “proximal” and “distal’-cue based behaviors, Behay. Neurosci., 101: 62–73.
Ruiz-Marcos, A. 1989, Quantitative studies of the effects of hypothyroidism on the development of the cerebral cortex, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G. R. DeLong, J. Robbins, and P. G. Condliffe, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Ruiz-Marcos, A., Salas, J., Sanchez-Toscano, F., Escobar del Rey, F., and Morreale de Escobar, G., 1983, Effects of neonatal and adult onset hypothyroidism on pyramidal cells of the rat auditory cortex, Dev. Brain Res., 9: 205–213.
Samuels, H. H., Forman, B. M., Horowitz, Z. D, and Ye, Z-S, 1989, Regulation of gene expression by thyroid hormone, Ann. Rev. Physiol., 51: 623–639.
Sarafian T. and Verity, A.M., 1986, Influence of thyroid hormones on rat cerebellar cell aggregation and survival in culture, Dev. Brain Res., 26: 261–270.
Sarlieve, L. L., Bouchon, R., Koehl, C., and Neskovic, N. M., 1983, Cerebroside and sulfatide biosynthesis in the brain of snell dwarf mouse: effects of thyroxine and growth hormone in the early postnatal period, J. Neurochem., 40: 1058–1062.
Schapiro, S., Salas, M., and Vukovich, K., 1970, Hormonal effects on ontogeny of swimming ability in the rat: Assessment of central nervous system development, Science, 168: 147–150.
Schalock, R. L., Brown, W. J., and Smith, R. L., 1979, Long-term effects of propylthiouracilinduced neonatal hypothyroidism, Exper. Psychobio., 12: 187–199.
Schreyer, D. J. and Jones, E. G., 1982, Growth and target finding by axons of the corticospinal tract in prenatal and postnatal rats, Neurosci., 7: 1837–53.
Serrano, L., Montejo de Garcini, E., Hernandez, M. A., and Avila, J., 1985, Localization of the tubulin binding site for tau protein, Eur. J. Biochem., 153: 595–600.
Shanklin, D. R. and Stein, S. A., 1988, The Ultrastructural Component Phasing of Developing Fetal and Early Neonatal Mouse Thyroid Cells, FASEB J., 2:A394, #571.
Shanklin, D. R., Stein, S. A., et al., 1991, Pathological studies of fetal thyroid development, in: “Advances in Perinatal Thyroidology,” B. Bercu, and D. Shulman, eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Shoukimas, G. M. and Hinds, J. W., 1978, The development of the cerebral cortex in the embryonic mouse: an electron microscopic serial section analysis, J. Comp. Neur., 179: 795–830.
Sidman, R. L., and Rakic, P., 1982, Development of the human central nervous system, in: “Histology and Histopathology of the Nervous System,” W. Haymaker and R. D. Adams, eds., C.C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Siegrist-Kaiser, Ca. A., Juge-Aubry, C., Tranter, M. P., Ekenbarger, D. M., Leonard, J. L., 1990, Thyroxine-dependent modulation of actin polymerization in cultured astrocytes. A novel, extranuclear action of thyroid hormone, J. of Bio. Chem., 265: 5296–302.
Smith, S. J., 1988, Neuronal Cytomechanics: The actin based motility of growth cones, Science, 242: 708–715.
Stanbury, J. B., Rochmans, P., Buhler, U. K., Ochi, Y., 1968, Congenital hypothyroidism with impaired thyroid response to thyrotropin, NEJM, 279: 1127–1138.
Stein, S. A., 1985, Thyroid hormone control of gene expression in Spraque-Dawley rat brain and liver, Ann. Neuro., 18: 385.
Stein, S. A., 1988, 9A6 mRNA, a mouse and rat thyroid regulated brain mRNA: Sequence analysis and in situ hybridization, Soc. for Neuro. Abst., Vol. 14, Part 2.
Stein, S. A., Adams, P. M., Shanklin, D. R., Mihailoff, G. A., Palnitkar, M., 1989a, Thyroid hormone regulation of specific mRNAs in developing brain, in: “Iodine and the Brain,” G. R. Delong, J. Robbins, P. G. Condliffe, eds., New York, Plenum Press.
Stein, S. A., Shanklin, D. R., Krulich, L., Roth, M. G., Chubb, C. M., Adams, P. M., 1989b, Evaluation and characterization of the 113//lis hypothyroid mouse II. Abnormalities of TSH and the thyroid gland, Neuroendocrin., 49: 509–519.
Stein, S. A., Bloom, G. S., Mihailoff, G. A., Adams, P. M., and Shanklin, D. R., 1989c, Thyroid hormone effects on microtubular composition in developing cerebral cortex, Soc. Neurosci. Abst., 15 (1): 95.
Stein, S. A., Kirkpatrick, L., Shanklin, D. R., Adams, P. M., and Brady, S., 1991a, Hypothyroidism reduces the rate of slow component A(SCa) axonal transport and of total tubulin protein in the hjt/ham+ mouse optic nerve, J. Neurosci. Res., 28: 121–133.
Stein, S. A., Zakarija, M., MacKenzie, J. M., and Shanklin, D. R., 1991b, The site of the molecular defect in the thyroid gland of the]íßt/1j mouse: Abnormalities in the TSH receptor-G protein adenylyl cyclase complex, THYROID, In Press.
Stein, S. A., Bloom, G. S., Shanklin, D. R., and Adams, P. M., 1991c, The effect of thyroid hormone on microtubular composition in developing mouse cerebral cortex, Submitted for publication.
Stein, S. A., et al., 1991d, The role of thyroid hormone in adult and developing brain, in: “Molecular Genetics of Neurological Disease,” R. N. Rosenberg and S. Prusiner, eds., Churchill-Livingstone.
Stein, SA., Kirkpatrick, L., Adams, P.M., Shanklin, D.R., and Brady, S.T., 1991e, Specific proteins of slow component b(SCb) axonal transport are slowed in the hypothyroid hit/hit mouse optic nerve, Submitted.
Strait, KA.,, Schwartz, H.L., Perez-Castillo, A.M.,and Oppenheimer, J.H., 1990, Relationship of c-erbA mRNA content to tissue triiodothyronine nuclear binding capacity and function in developing and adult rats, J. Biol. Chem., 265: 10514–10521.
Strupp, B. J. and Levitsky, D. A., 1983, Early brain insult and cognition: A comparison of malnutrition and hypothyroidism, Dey. Psych., 16: 535–40.
Sturrock, R. R., 1974, Histogenesis of the anterior limb of the anterior commissure of the mouse brain, I. A quantitative study of changes in the glial population with age, II. A quantitative study of pre and postnatal mitosis, J. Anat., 117: 17–35.
Sullivan, K. F., 1988, Structure and utilization of tubulin isotypes, Ann. Rev. Cell Biol., 4: 687–716.
Sutherland, R. J. and Rudy, J. W., 1988, Place learning in the Morris place navigation task is impaired by damage to the hippocampal formation even if the temporal demands are reduced, Psychobiol., 16: 157–163.
Takahashi, T., 1983, Transplacental effects of 3,5-dimethyl-3’-isopropyl-l-thyronine on tubulin content in fetal brains in rats, Jap. J. Physiol., 34: 365–368.
Taylor, B. A. and Rowe, L., 1987, The congenital goiter mutation is linked to the thyroglobulin gene in the mouse, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 84: 1986–90.
Tucker, R.P., Garner, C.C., and Matus, A., 1989, In situ localization of microtubule-associated protein mRNA in the developing and adult rat brain, Neuron, 2: 1245–1256.
Uziel, A., 1986, Periods of sensitivity to thyroid hormone during the development of the organ of Corti, Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl., 429: 23–27.
Vallee, R. B. and Bloom, G. S., 1991, Mechanisms of fast and slow axonal transport, Ann. Rev. Neurosci., 14: 59–92.
Van Middlesworth, L. and Norris, C. H., 1980, Audiogenic seizures and cochlear damage in rats after perinatal antithyroid treatment, Endocrin., 106: 16–86.
Vulsma, T., Gons, M. H., and de Vijlder, J. J. M., 1989, Maternal-fetal transfer of thyroxine in congenital hypothyroidism due to a total organification defect of thyroid agenesis, NEJM, 321: 13–16.
Weinstein, S. L. and Tharp, B. R., 1989, Etiology and timing of static encephalopathies of childhood (cerebral palsy), in: “Fetal and Neonatal Brain Injury,’ D. K. Stevenson and P. Sunshine, eds., B.C. Decker, Inc., Philadelphia.
Wise, S. P., Fleshman, J. W., and Jones, E. G., 1979, Maturation of pyramidal cell form in relation to developing afferent and efferent connections of rat somatic sensory cortex, Neurosci., 4: 1275–1297.
Wolter, R., Noel, P., de Cock, P., Craen, M., Ernould, C., Malvaux, P., Verstraeten, F., Simons, J., Mertens, S., Van Broeck, N., and Vanderschueren-Lodeweyck, M., 1979, Neuropsychological study in treated thyroid dysgenesis, Acta Paediatr Scand. Suppl., 277: 41–45.
Wujek, J. and Lasek, R. J., 1983, Correlation of axonal regeneration and slow component b in two branches of a single axon, J. Neurosci., 3: 243–257.
Yamada, K.M., Spooner B.S., Wessells N.K., 1971, Ultrastructure and function of growth cones and axons of cultured nerve cells, J. Cell Bio., 49: 614–635.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1991 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Stein, S.A., Adams, P.M., Shanklin, D.R., Mihailoff, G.A., Palnitkar, M.B. (1991). Thyroid Hormone Control of Brain and Motor Development: Molecular, Neuroanatomical, and Behavioral Studies. In: Bercu, B.B., Shulman, D.I. (eds) Advances in Perinatal Thyroidology. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 299. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-5973-9_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-5973-9_4
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-5975-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-5973-9
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive