Abstract
Throughout this book I have attempted to develop a general framework for understanding and managing forest insect pest populations—general in the sense that the principles and methods should be applicable to any insect pest problem anywhere in the world. I had originally planned to end the book at Chapter 10 but, on reaching that point, I became concerned that the reader would not have grasped how these principles and methods could be applied in practice. Even though the exercises at the end of each section, particularly the special project, were designed to provide experience in solving forest insect problems, nowhere is the practical side of forest management consolidated into a unifying whole.
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References and Selected Readings
The Spruce Beetle, Ips typographus
Bakke, A., 1982, The utilization of aggregation pheromone for the control of the spruce bark beetle, in: Insect Pheromone Technology: Chemistry and Applications (B. A. Leonhardt and M. Beroza, eds.), pp. 219–229, American Chemical Society Symposium Series No. 190, Washington, D.C.
Bakke, A., 1983, Host tree and bark beetle interaction during a mass outbreak of Ips typographus in Norway, Z. Angew. Entomol. 96:118–125,
Christiansen, E., 1985, Ips/Ceratocystis—infection of Norway Spruce; What is a deadly dosage?, Z. Angew. Entomol. 99:6–11.
Christiansen, E., and Horntvedt, R., 1985, Combined IpslCeratocystis attack on Norway spruce, and defensive mechanisms of the trees, Z. Angew. Entomol. 96:110–118.
Ravn, H. P., 1985, Expansion of the populations of Ips typographus (L.) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and their local dispersal following gale disaster in Denmark, Z. Angew. Entomol. 99:26–33.
Thalenhorst, W., 1958, Grundzüge der Populationsdynamik des grossen Fichtenborkenkäfers Ips typographus L., Schrift. Fotst. Fak. Univ. Gottingen 21:1–26. (with English summary)
Worrell, R., 1983, Damage by the spruce bark beetle in South Norway. 1970–80: A survey, and factors affecting its occurrence, Rep. Norwegian For. Res. Inst. 38(6): 1–34.
The Douglas-fir Tussock Moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata
Berryman, A. A., 1978, Population cycles of the Douglas-fir tussock moth: The time-delay hypothesis, Can. Entomol. 110:513–518.
Brookes, M. H., Stark, R. W., and Campbell, R. W., 1978, The Douglas-fir tussock moth: A synthesis, U.S. Forest Service Technical Bulletin 1585.
Mason, R. R., 1981, Host foliage in the susceptibility of forest sites in Central California to outbreaks of the Douglas-fir tussock moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), Can. Entomol. 113:325–332.
Mason, R. R., Torgerson, T. R., Wickman, B. E., and Paul, H. G., 1983, Natural regulation of a Douglas-fir tussock moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) population in the Sierra Nevada, Environ. Entomol. 12:587–594.
Monserud, R. A., and Crookston, N. L., 1982, A user’s guide to the combined stand prognosis and Douglas-fir tussock moth outbreak model, U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-27.
Stoszek, K. J., Mika, P. G., Moore, J. A., and Osborne, H. L., 1981, Relationships of Douglas-fir tussock moth defoliation to site and stand characteristics in Northern Idaho, For. Sci. 27:431–442.
Wickman, B. E., 1978, A case study of a Douglas-fir tussock moth outbreak and stand conditions 10 years later, U.S. Forest Service Research Paper PNW-244.
Wickman, B. E., Mason, R. R., and Thompson, C. G., 1973, Major outbreaks of the Douglas-fir tussock moth in Oregon and California, U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-5. (good review of major outbreaks and control projects)
The European Woodwasp, Delade nus siricidicola
Bedding, R. A., and Akhurst, R. J., 1974, Use of the nematode Delade nus siricidicola in the biological control of Sirex noctilio in Australia, J. Aust. Entomol. Soc. 13:129–135.
Coutts, M. P., 1969, The mechanism of pathogenicity of Sirex noctilio on Pinus radiata. I. Effects of the symbiotic fungus Amylostereum sp. (Thelophoraceae). II. Effects of 5. noctilio mucus, Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 22:915–924, 1153–1161.
Gilmour, J. W., 1965, The life cycle of the fungal symbiont of Sirex noctilio,NZ J. For. 10:80–89.
Madden, J. L., 1968, Physiological aseects of host tree favorability for the woodwasp, Sirex noctilio F, Nature (London) 218:189–190.
Madden, J. L., 1974, Oviposition behavior, of the woodwasp Sirex noctilio F., Aust. J. Zool. 22:341–351.
Madden, J. L., 1975, An analysis of an outbreak of the woodwasp, Sirex noctilio F. (Hymenoptera: Siricidae), in Pinus radiata, Bull. Entomol. Res. 65:491–500.
Taylor, K. L., 1976, The introduction and establishment of insect parasitoids to control Sirex noctilio in Australia, Entomophaga 21:429–440.
Taylor, K. L., 1978, Evaluation of the insect parasitoids of Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) in Tasmania, Oecologia (Berl.) 32:1–10.
Taylor, K. L., 1980, Studies with Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) and its parasites that illustrate the importance of evaluating biological control attempts, Acta Oecol. Appl. 1:181–187.
Taylor, K. L., 1983, The Sirex woodwasp: Ecology and control of an introduced forest insect, in: The Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case Histories (R. L. Kitching and R. E. Jones, eds.), pp. 231–248, CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia.
The Spruce Budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana
Belyea, R. N., Miller, C. A., Baskerville, G. L., Kettela, E. G., Marshall, K. B., and Varty, I. W., 1975, The spruce budworm, For. Chron. 51:1–26.
Clark, W. C., Jones, D. D., and Holling, C. S., 1979, Lessons for ecological policy design: A case study of ecosystem management, Ecol. Model. 7:1–54.
Flexner, J. L., Bassett, J. R., Montgomery, B. A., Simmons, G. A., and Witter, J. A., 1983, Spruce-fir silviculture and the spruce budworm in the Lake States, Michigan Cooperative Forest Pest Management Program, C ANUS A Handbook 83–2.
Hardy, Y. J., Lafond, A., and Hamel, L., 1983, The epidemiology of the current spruce budworm outbreak in Quebec, For. Sci. 29:715–725.
Montgomery, B. A., Simmons, G. A., Witter, J. A., and Flexner, J. L., 1982, The spruce budworm handbook: A management guide for spruce-fir stands in the Lake States, Michigan Cooperative Forest Pest Management Program, CANUSA Handbook 82–7.
Morris, R. F. (ed.), 1963, The dynamics of epidemic spruce budworm populations, Mem. Entomol. Soc. Can. 31:1–332. (especially sections 1, 2, 3, 18, 28, 30, 34, and 37)
Schmitt, D. M., Grimble, D. G., and Searcy, J. L. (eds.), 1984, Managing the spruce budworm in eastern North America, U.S. Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook No. 620.
Wellington, W. G., Fettes, J. J., Turner, K. B., and Belyea, R. M., 1950, Physical and biological indicators of the development of outbreaks of the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Can. J. Res. 28:308–331.
The Western Budworm, Choristoneura occidentales
Campbell, R. W., Beckwith, R. C., and Torgerson, T. R., 1983, Numerical behavior of some western spruce budworm (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) populations in Washington and Idaho, Environ. Entomol. 12:1360–1366.
Campbell, R. W., Torgerson, T. R., and Srivastava, N., 1983, A suggested role for predaceous birds and ants in the population dynamics of the western spruce budworm, For. Sci. 29:779–790.
Carlson, C. E., Fellin, D. G., and Schmidt, W. C., 1983, The western spruce budworm in northern Rocky Mountain forests: A review of ecology, insecticidal treatments and silvicultural practices, in: Management of Second-Growth Forests: The State of Knowledge and Research Needs (J. O’Loughlin and R. D. Pfister, eds.), pp. 76–103, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, School of Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula.
Fellin, D. G., 1983, Chemical insecticide vs. the western spruce budworm: After three decades, what’s the score? West. Wild. 9(1):8–12. (ecology, impacts and chemical and silvicultural control)
Fellin, D. G., Shearer, R. C., and Carlson, C. E., 1983, Western spruce budwonn in northern Rocky Mountains, West. Wild. 9(1):2–7. (ecology, impacts and chemical and silvicultural control)
Garton, E. O., and Langelier, L. A., 1985, Effects of stand characteristics on avian predators of western spruce budworm, in: The Role of the Host in the Population Dynamics of Forest Insects, Proceedings of the IUFRO Conference, Banff, Alberta (L. Safranyik, ed.), pp. 65–72, Pacific Forest Research Center, Victoria, British Columbia.
Harris, J. W. E., Alfaro, R. I., Dawson, A. F., and Brown, R. G., 1985, The western spruce budworm in British Columbia 1909–1983, Canadian Forestry Service Information Report BC-X-257.
Johnson, P. C., and Denton, R. E., 1975, Outbreaks of the western spruce budworm in the American northern Rocky Mountain Area from 1922 through 1971, U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-20.
Kemp, W. P., Everson, D. O., and Wellington, W. G., 1985, Regional climatic patterns and western spruce budworm outbreaks, U.S. Forest Service Technical Bulletin No. 1693.
Schmidt, W. C., Fellin, D. G., and Carlson, C. E., 1983, Alternatives to chemical insecticides in budworm-susceptible forests, West. Wild. 9(1): 13–19. (ecology, impacts and chemical and silvicultural control)
Thompson, A. J., 1979, Evaluation of key biological relationships of western budworm and its host trees, Canadian Forestry Service BC-X-186.
The Black-headed Budworm, Acleris variana
Miller, C. A., 1966, The black-headed budworm in eastern Canada, Can. Entomol. 98:592–613.
Morris, R. F., 1959, Single factor analysis in population dynamics, Ecology 40:580–588.
Silver, G. T., 1960, The relation of weather to population trends of the black-headed budworm, Acleris variana (Fern.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Can. Entomol. 92:401–410.
The Gypsy Moth, Lymantria dispar
Campbell, R. W., 1975, The gypsy moth and its natural enemies, U.S. Forest Service, Agricultural Information Bulletin 381.
Campbell, R. W., 1979, Gypsy moth: Forest influence, U.S. Forest Service, Agricultural Information Bulletin 423.
Campbell, R. W., and Sloan, R. J., 1977, Release of gypsy moth populations from innocuous levels, Enviorn. Entomol. 6:323–330.
Campbell, R. W., and Sloan, R. J., 1978, Numerical bimodality among North American gypsy moth populations, Environ. Entomol. 7:641–646.
Doane, C. C., and McManus, M. L. (eds.), 1981, The gypsy moth: Research towards integrated pest management, U.S. Forest Service, Technical Bulletin 1584.
The Western Pine-shoot Borer, Eucosma sonomana
Daterman, G. E., 1982, Control of western pine shoot borer damage by mating disruption—A reality, in: Insect Suppression with Controlled Release Pheromone Systems (A. F. Kydonieus, M. Beroza, and G. Zweig, eds.), pp. 155–163, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Stevens, R. E., and Jennings, D. T., 1977, Western pine-shoot borer: A threat to intensive management of ponderosa pine in the Rocky Mountain area and southwest, U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report RM-45.
Stoszek, K. J., 1973, Damage to ponderosa pine plantations by the western pine-shoot borer, J. For. 71:701–705.
The European Pine Shoot Moth, Rhyacionia buoliana
Miller, W. E., 1967, The European pine shoot moth—Ecology and control in the Lake states, For. Sci. Monog. 14:1–72.
Heikkenen, H. J., 1981, The influence of red pine site quality on damage by the European pine shoot moth, in: Hazard-Rating Systems in Forest Insect Pest Management, (R. L. Hedden, S. J. Barras, and J. E. Coster, eds.), U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-27, pp. 35–44.
The Larch Budmoth, Zeiraphera diniana
Baltensweiler, W., 1964, Zeiraphera griseana Hubner (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in the European Alps. A contribution to the problem of cycles, Can. Entomol. 96:792–800.
Baltensweiler, W., 1970, The relevance of changes in the composition of larch budmoth populations for the dynamics of its numbers, in: Dynamics of Populations, Proceedings of the Advanced Institute on the Dynamics of Numbers in Populations, Oosterbeek, Netherlands (P. J. den Boer and G. R. Gradwell, eds.), pp. 208–219, Centre for Agricultural Publications and Documentation, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Baltensweiler, W., Benz, G., Bovey, P., and Delucchi, V., 1977, Dynamics of larch budmoth populations, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 22:79–100.
The Winter Moth, Operophthera bramata
Embree, D. G., 1966, The role of introduced parasites in the control of the winter moth in Nova Scotia, Can. Entomol. 98:1159–1167.
Feeny, P., 1970, Seasonal changes in oak leaf tannins and nutrients as a cause of spring feeding by winter moth caterpillars, Ecology 51:565–581.
Varley, C. G., Gradwell, G. R., and Hassell, M. P., 1973, Insect Population Ecology: An Analytical Approach. Blackwell, Oxford. (especially Chapter 7)
The Autumnal Moth, Epirrita antumnata
Haukioja, E., 1980, On the role of plant defenses in the fluctuation of herbivore populations, Oikos 35:202–213.
Haukioja, E., 1982, Inducible defences of white birch to a geometrid defoliator, Epirrita autumnata, Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Insect-Plant Relationships, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Tenow, O., 1975, Topographical dependence of an outbreak of Oporinia autumnata Bkh. (Lep., Geometridae) in a mountain birch forest in northern Sweden, Zoon 3:85–110.
The Forest Tent Caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria
Hildahl, V., and Reeks, W. A., 1960, Outbreaks of the forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria Hbn., and their effects on stands of trembling aspen in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Can. Entomol. 92:199–209.
Hodson, A. C., 1941, An ecological study of the forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria Hbn., in northern Minnesota. University of Minnesota, Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 148.
Hodson, A. C., 1977, Some aspects of forest tent caterpillar population dynamics, in: Insect Ecology (H. M. Kulman and H. C. Chiang, eds.), pp. 5–16, University of Minnesota, Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 310.
Ives, W. G. H., 1973, Heat units and outbreaks of the forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae). Can. Entomol. 105:529–543.
Sippell, W. L., 1962, Outbreaks of the forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria Hbn., a periodic defoliator of broad-leaved trees in Ontario. Can. Entomol. 94:408–416.
The Western Tent Caterpillar, Malacosoma californicum pluviale
Thompson, W. A., Vertinsky, I. B., and Wellington, W. G., 1979, The dynamics of outbreaks: Further simulation experiments with the western tent caterpillar, Res. Popul. Ecol. 20:188–200.
Thompson, W. A., Vertinsky, I. B., and Wellington, W. G., 1981, Intervening in pest outbreaks: Simulation experiments with the western tent caterpillar, Res. Popul. Ecol. 23:27–38.
Wellington, W. G., 1964, Qualitative changes in populations in unstable environments, Can. Entomol. 96:436–451.
Wellington, W. G., 1977, Returning the insect to insect ecology: Some consequences for pest management, Environ. Entomol. 6:1–8.
The Lodgepole Needle Miner, Coleotechnites starki
Stark, R. W., 1959, Population dynamics of the lodgepole needle miner, Recurvaria starkii Freeman, in Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, Can. J. Zool. 37:917–943.
Stark, R. W., and Cook, J. A., 1957, The effects of defoliation by the lodgepole needle miner, For. Sci. 3:376–396.
The Southern Pine Beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis
Belanger, R. P., and Malac, B. F., 1980, Silviculture can reduce losses from the southern pine beetle. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 576.
Coulson, R. N., 1979, Population dynamics of bark beetles, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 24:417–447.
Hodges, J. D., and Pickard, L. S., 1971, Lightning in the ecology of the southern pine beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), Can. Entomol. 103:44–51.
Payne, T. L., Kudon, L. H., Walsh, K. D., and Berisford, C. W., 1985, Influence of infestation density on suppression of D. frontalis infestations with attractants, Z. Angew. Entomol. 99:39–43.
Schowalter, T. D., Coulson, R. N., and Crossley, D. A., 1981, Role of southern pine beetle and fire in maintenance of structure and function of the Southeastern coniferous forest, Environ. Entomol. 10:821–825.
Thatcher, R. C., Searcy, J. L., Coster, J. E., and Hertel, G. D. (eds.), 1982, The southern pine beetle, U.S. Forest Service Technical Bulletin 1631.
The Western Pine Beetle, Dendroctonus brevicomis
Miller, J. M., and Keen, F. P., 1960, Biology and control of the western pine beetle, USDA Forest Service Miscellaneous Publication 800.
Stark, R. W., and Dahlsten, D. L. (eds.), 1970, Studies on the population dynamics of the western pine beetle, Dendroctonus brevicomis Le Conte, University of California, Division of Agriculture, Scientific Publication.
Wood, D. L., 1972, Selection and colonization of ponderosa pine by bark beetles, in: Insect/Plant Relationships (H. F. van Emden, ed.), pp. 101–117, Blackwell, Oxford.
The Douglas-fir Beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae
Furniss, M. M., McGregor, M. D., Foiles, M. W., and Partridge, A. D., 1979, Chronology and characteristics of a Douglas-fir beetle outbreak in northern Idaho, U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report INT-50.
Furniss, M. M., Young, J. W., McGregor, M. D., Livingston, R. L., and Hamel, D. R., 1977, Effectiveness of controlled-release formulations of MCH for preventing Douglas-fir beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) infestations in felled trees, Can. Entomol. 109:1063–1069.
Lejeune, R. R., McMullen, L. H., and Atkins, M. D., 1961, The influence of logging on Douglas-fir beetle populations, For. Chron. 37:308–314.
Rudinsky, J. A., 1966, Host selection and invasion by the Douglas-fir beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopkins, in Coastal Douglas-fir forests, Can. Entomol. 98:98–111.
Ryker, L. C., 1984, Acoustic and chemical signals in the life cycle of a beetle, Sci. Am. 250(6): 112–123.
The Mountain Pine Beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae
Amman, G. D., and Baker, B. H., 1972, Mountain pine beetle influence on lodgepole pine stand structure, J. For. 70:204–209.
Berryman, A. A., 1982, Mountain pine beetle outbreaks in Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine forests, J. For. 80:410–413.
Berryman, A. A., Amman, G. D., Stark, R. W., and Kibbee, D. L. (eds.), 1978, Theory and practice of mountain pine beetle management in lodgepole pine forests, Proceedings of a Symposium at Washington State University, Forestry, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow.
Raffa, K. F., and Berryman, A. A., 1983, The role of host resistance in the colonization behavior and ecology of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), Ecol. Monog. 53:27–49.
Safranyik, K., Shrimpton, D. M., and Whitney, H. S., 1974, Management of lodgepole pine to reduce losses from the mountain pine beetle, Canadian Forestry Service, Technical Report 1.
The Great Spruce Bark Beetle, Dendroctonus micans
Brown, J. M. B., and Bevan, D., 1966, The Great Spruce Bark Beetle, Dendroctonus micans, in North West Europe, Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, London, (see references for a number of important papers, mostly in German)
Grégoire, J.-C., 1985, Host colonization strategies in Dendroctonus: Larval gregariousness or mass attack by adults? in: The Role of the Host in Population Dynamics of Forest Insects (L. Safranyik, ed.), pp. 147–154, Proceedings of the IUFRO Conference, Banff, Alberta, Pacific Forest Research Centre, Victoria, British Columbia.
Grégoire, J.-C., Merlin, J., Pasteels, J. M., Jaffuel, R., Vouland, G., and Schvester, D., 1985, Biocontrol oi Dendroctonus micans by Rhizophagus grandis Gyll. (Col., Rhizophagidae) in the Massif Central (France), Z. Angew. Entomol. 99:182–190.
Grégoire, J.-C., and Pasteels, J. M. (eds.), 1984, Biocontrol of bark beetles (Dendroctonus micans). Proceedings of a Symposium organized by the Commission of the European Communities and the Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussells.
The Spruce Beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis
Baker, B. H., and Kemperman, J. A., 1974, Spruce beetle effects on a white pine stand in Alaska, J. For. 72:423–425.
Hard, J. S., Werner, R. A., and Holsten, E. H., 1983, Susceptibility of white spruce to attack by spruce beetles during the early years of an outbreak in Alaska, Can. J. For. Res. 13:678–684.
Schmid, J. M., and Frye, R. H., 1976, Stand ratings for spruce beetle, U.S. Forest Service, Research Note RM-309.
Werner, R. A., Baker, B. H., and Rush, P. A., 1977, The spruce beetle in white spruce forests of Alaska, U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report PNW-61.
Werner, R. A., and Holsten, E. H., 1983, Mortality of white spruce during a spruce beetle outbreak on the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska, Can. J. For. Res. 13:96–101.
European Elm Beetle, Scolytus scolytus
Beaver, R. A., 1967, The regulation of population density in the bark beetle, Solytus scolytus (F.), J. Anim. Ecol. 36:435–451.
Beaver, R. A., 1969, Natality, mortality and control of the elm bark beetle, Scolytus scolytus (F.) (Col., Scolytidae), Bull. Entomol. Res. 59:537–540.
Blight, M. M., Wadhmas, L. J., and Wenham, M. J., 1979, Chemically mediated behavior in the large elm bark beetle, Scolytus scolytus, Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. 25:122–124.
Brasier, C.M., and Gibbs, J. N., 1973, Origin of the Dutch elm disease epidemic in Britain, Nature (Lond.) 242:607–609.
Gibbs, J. N., 1978, International epidemiology of Dutch elm disease, Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 16:287–307.
Gibbs, J. N., 1978, Development of the Dutch elm disease epidemic in southern England, 1971–6. Ann. Appl. Biol. 88:219–228.
Heybrock, H. M., Elgersma, D. M., and Scheffer, R. J., 1982, Dutch elm disease: An ecological accident, Outlook Agric. 11:1–9.
The Fir Engraver, Scolytus ventralis
Berryman, A. A., 1969, Responses of Abies grandis to attack by Scolytus ventralis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), Can. Entomol. 101:1033–1041.
Berryman, A. A., 1973, Population dynamics of the fir engraver, Scolytus ventralis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). 1. Analysis of population behavior and survival from 1964–71, Can. Entomol. 105:1465–1488.
Bordasch, R. P., and Berryman, A. A., 1977, Host resistance to the fir engraver beetle, Scolytus ventralis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). 2. Repellency of Abies grandis resins and some monoter-penes, Can. Entomol. 109:95–100.
Ferrell, G. T., 1973, Weather, logging and tree growth associated with fir engraver attack scars in white fir, U.S. Forest Service Research Paper PSW-92.
Heitert, H. D., Miller, D. L., and Partridge, A. D., 1975, Interaction of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and root-rot pathogens in grand fir in northern Idaho, Can. Entomol. 107:899–904.
Struble, G. R., 1957, The fir engraver, a serious enemy of western true firs, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Product Research Department No. 11.
The Ambrosia Beetle, Trypodendron lineatum
Borden, J. H., and McLean, J. A., 1981, Pheromone-based suppression of ambrosia beetles in industrial timber processing areas, in: Management of Insect Pests with Semiochemicals (E. R. Mitchell, ed.), pp. 133–154, Plenum, New York.
Chapman, J. A., and Nijholt, W. W., 1980, Time of attack flight of ambrosia beetle, Trypodendron Hneatum (Oliv.) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in relation to weather in Coastal British Columbia. Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forest Research Center, Victoria, BC-R-5.
McMullen, D. L., 1956, Ambrosia beetles and their control in British Columbia, For. Chron. 32:31–43.
Moek, H. A., 1970, Ethanol as the primary attractant for the ambrosia beetle Trypodendron lineatum (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), Can. Entomol. 102:985–995.
Prebble, M. L., and Graham, K., 1956, Studies of attack by ambrosia beetles in softwood logs on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, For. Sci. 3:90–112.
The Japanese Pine Sawyer, Monochamus alternates
Dropkin, V. H., Foudin, A., Kondo, E., Linit, M., Smith, M., and Robbins, K., 1981, Pinewood nematode: A threat, Plant Dis. 65:1022–1027.
Kobayashi, F., Yamane, A., and Ikeda, T., 1984, The Japanese pine sawyer beetle as the vector of pine wilt disease, Anna. Rev. Entomol. 29:115–135.
Mamiya, Y., 1972, Pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus lignicolus Mamiya and Kiyohara, as a causal agent of pine wilting disease, Rev. Plant Protect. Res. 5:46–60.
Wingfield, M. J., Blanchette, R. A., Nicholls, T. H., and Robbins, K., 1982, The pine wood nematode: A comparison of the situation in the United States and Japan, Can. J. For. Res. 12:71–75.
The Larch Sawfly, Pristiphora erichsonii
Graham, S. A., 1956, The larch sawfly in the Lake States, For. Sci. 2:132–160.
Ives, W. G. H., 1976, The dynamics of larch sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) populations in southeastern Manitoba, Can. Entomol. 108:701–730.
Turnock, W. J., 1972, Geographical and historical variability in population patterns and life systems of the larch sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), Can. Entomol. 104:1883–1900.
The European Pine Sawfly, Neodiprion sertifer
Larsson, S., and Tenow, O., 1984, Areal distribution of a Neodiprion sertifer (Hym., Diprionidae) outbreak on Scots pine as related to stand condition, Holarctic Ecol. 7:81–90.
Niemelä, P., Tuomi, J., Manila, R., and Ojala, P., 1984, The effect of previous damage on the quality of Scots pine foliage as food for Diprionid sawflies, Z. Angew. Entomol. 98:33–43.
Lyons, L. A., 1977, On the population dynamics of Neodiprion sawflies, in: Insect ecology (H. M. Kulman and H. C. Chiang, eds.), pp. 48–55, Technical Bulletin 310, University of Minnesota, Agricultural Experiment Station,
Pschorn-Walcher, H., and Eichorn, O., 1973, Studies on the biology of egg parasites (Hym.: Chalcidoidea) of the pine sawfly, Neodiprion sertifer (Geoff.) (Hym.: Diprionidae) in Central Europe, Z. Angew. Entomol. 74:286–318.
Jack Pine Sawfly, Neodiprion swainei
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The Beech Scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga
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The Hemlock Scale, Fiorinia externa
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The Balsam Woolly Adelgid, Adelges piceae
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The Textured Psyllid, Cardiaspina albitextura
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The Walkingstick, Didymuria vioiescens
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© 1986 Plenum Press, New York
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Berryman, A.A. (1986). The Practice of Forest Insect Management. In: Forest Insects. Population Ecology: Theory and Application. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-5080-4_11
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