Skip to main content

Abstract

In recent years, much has been written about the need for new psychological perspectives on the environment and about new environmental perspectives in psychology. This burst of activity has arisen partly from pressures within psychology to make its theories and methods more commensurate with the problems of everyday human behavior and partly from outside of psychology, where many planners, designers, architects, and agents of environmental change stand in need of theories and methods that will provide them with more human, more behaviorally based principles on which to base their work. Within that context, one purpose of this chapter is to provide a synopsis of behavioral ecology, an emerging perspective on man-environment relations.

Work on this paper was supported in part by Research and Training Center No. 4 (RT-4), Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Institute for Rehabilitation and Research, funded by Rehabilitation Services Administration, USDHEW.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Alexander, J. L., Dreher, G. F., and Willems, E. P. Behavioral ecology and humanistic and behavioristic approaches to change. In A. Wandersman, P. Poppen, and D. Ricks (Eds.), Human behavior and change. Elmsford, N.Y.: Pergamon, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altman, I. Choicepoints in the classification of scientific knowledge. In B. P. Indik and F. K. Berrien (Eds.), People, groups, and organizations. New York: Teachers College Press, 1968, pp. 47–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altman, I. The environment and social behavior. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altman, I., and Lett, E. E. The ecology of interpersonal relationships: A classification system and conceptual model. In J. E. McGrath (Ed.), Social and psychological factors in stress. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970, pp. 177–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakeman, R., and Helmreich, R. Cohesiveness and performance: Covariation and causality in an undersea environment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1975, 11, 478–489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G. Ecology and motivation. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960, pp. 1–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G. On the nature of the environment. Journal of Social Issues, 1963, 19, 17–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G. (Ed.). The stream of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G. Observation of behavior: Ecological approaches. Journal of Mt. Sinai Hospital, 1964, 31, 268–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G. Explorations in ecological psychology. American Psychologist, 1965, 20, 1–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G. Ecological psychology. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G. Wanted: An eco-behavioral science. In E. P. Willems and H. L. Raush (Eds.), Naturalistic viewpoints in psychological research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969, pp. 31–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G., and Barker, L. S. Behavior units for the comparative study of culture. In B. Kaplan (Ed.), Studying personality cross-culturally. New York: Harper and Row, 1961, pp. 457–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. G., and Schoggen, P. Qualities of community life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1973. Barker, R. G., and Wright, H. F. Midwest and its children. New York: Harperand Row, 1955.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benarde, M. A. Our precarious habitat. New York: W. W. Norton, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berrien, F. K. General and social systems. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulding, K. E. General systems theory: The skeleton of science. In W. Buckley (Ed.), Modern systems research for the behavioral scientist. Chicago: Aldine, 1968, pp. 3–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, R. M. Studying behavior in natural settings. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breland, K., and Breland, M. Animal behavior. New York: Macmillan, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruhn, J. G. Human ecology: A unifying science? Human Ecology, 1974, 2, 105–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruner, J. S. The growth of mind. American Psychologist, 1965, 20, 1007–1017.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, W. (Ed.). Modern systems research for the behavioral scientist. Chicago: Aldine, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buell, J., Stoddard, P., Harris, F. R., and Baer, D. M. Collateral social development accompanying reinforcement of outdoor play in a preschool child. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1968, 1, 167–173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun, J. B. Ecological factors in the development of behavioral anomalies. In J. Zubin and H. F. Hunt (Eds.), Comparative psychopathology. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1967, pp. 1–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T. Reforms as experiments. American Psychologist, 1969, 24, 409–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caplan, N., and Nelson, S. D. On being useful: The nature and consequences of psychological research on social problems. American Psychologist, 1973, 28, 199–211.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapanis, A. The relevance of laboratory studies to practical situations. Ergonomics, 1967, 10, 557–577.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chase, A. The biological imperatives. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Glass, D. C., and Singer, J. E. Apartment noise, auditory discrimination, and reading ability in children. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1973, 9, 407–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colinvaux, P. A. Introduction to ecology. New York: Wiley, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowen, E. L. Social and community interventions. Annual Review of Psychology, 1973, 24, 423–472.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Craik, K. H. Environmental psychology. In New Directions in psychology-IV. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970, pp. 1–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craik, K. H. An ecological perspective on environmental decision-making. Human Ecology, 1972, 1, 69–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danford, G. S., and Willems, E. P. Subjective responses to architectual displays: A question of validity. Environment and Behavior, 1975, 7, 486–516.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desor, J. Toward a psychological theory of crowding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1972, 21, 79–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Downs, R. M., and Stea, D. (Eds.). Image and environment: Cognitive mapping and spatial behavior. Chicago: Aldine, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drabman, R. S., and Lahey, B. B. Feedback in classroom behavior modification: Effects on the target and her classmates. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 591–598.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubos, R. Man adapting. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubos, R. So human an animal. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubos, R. The despairing optimist. American Scholar, 1970–1971, 40, 16–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubos, R. The despairing optimist. American Scholar, 1971, 40, 565–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebbesen, E. B., and Haney, M. Flirting with death: Variables affecting risk taking at intersections. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1973, 3, 303–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, L. The human nature of human nature. Science, 1972, 176, 123–128.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elms, A. C. The crisis of confidence in social psychology. American Psychologist, 1975, 30, 967–976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fawl, C. L. Disturbances experienced by children in their natural habitats. In R. G. Barker (Ed.), The stream of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1973, pp. 99–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galle, O. R., Gove, W. R., and McPherson, J. M. Population density and pathology: What are the relations for man ? Science, 1972, 176, 23–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, D. C., and Singer, J. E. Urban stress. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gump, P. V. Intra-setting analysis: The third grade classroom as a special but illustrative case. In E. P. Willems and H. L. Raush (Eds.), Naturalistic viewpoints in psychological research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969, pp. 200–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gump, P. V., and Kounin, J. S. Issues raised by ecological and “classical” research efforts. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1959–1960, 6, 145–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbert, E. W., Pinkston, E. M., Hayden, M. L., Sajwaj, T. E., Pinkston, S., Cordua, G., and Jackson, C. Adverse effects of differential parental attention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 15–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, T. H., and Masuda, M. Psychosomatic syndrome. Psychology Today,1972, 5, 71-72, 106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Insel, P. M., and Moos, R. H. (Eds.). Health and the social environment. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ittelson, W. H., Proshansky, H. M., Rivlin, L. G., and Winkel, G. H. An introduction to environmental psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ittelson, W. H., Rivlin, L. G., and Proshansky, H. M. The use of behavioral maps in environmental psychology. In H. M. Proshansky, W. H. Ittelson, and L. G. Rivlin (Eds.), Environmental psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970, pp. 658–668.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, J. A. Ecological psychology: An approach to motivation. In W.J. Arnold and M. M. Page (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970, pp. 1–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laszlo, E. The systems view of the world. New York: Braziller, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeCompte, W. F., and Willems, E. P. Ecological analysis of a hospital: Location dependencies in the behavior of staff and patients. In J. Archea and C. Eastman (Eds.), EDRA-2: Proceedings of the 2nd annual environmental design research association conference. Pittsburgh: Carnegie-Mellon University, 1970, pp. 236–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R. B. Kung spatial organization: An ecological and historical perspective. Human Ecology, 1972, 1, 125–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, K. Field theory in social science. New York: Harper, 1951.

    Google Scholar 

  • Margalef, R. Perspectives in ecological theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire, W. J. Theory-oriented research in natural settings: The best of both worlds for social psychology. In M. Sherif and C. W. Sherif (Eds.), Interdisciplinary relationships in the social sciences. Chicago: Aldine, 1969, pp. 21–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • McHale, J. The eoclogical context. New York: Braziller, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menzel, E. W., Jr. Naturalistic and experimental approaches to primate behavior. In E. P. Willems and H. L. Raush (Eds.), Naturalistic viewpoints in psychological research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969, pp. 78–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W. Personality and assessment. New York: Wiley, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R. H. Conceptualizations of human environments. American Psychologist, 1973, 28, 652–665.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R. H. Systems for the classification of human environments: An overview. In R. H. Moos and P. M. Insel (Eds.), Issues in human ecology. Palo Alto, Calif.: National Press Books, 1974, pp. 5–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moss, G. E. Illness, immunity, and social interaction. New York: Wiley, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murdoch, W., and Connell, J. All about ecology. The Center Magazine, 1970, 3, 56–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nesselroade, J. R., and Reese, H. W. (Eds.). Life-span developmental psychology: Methodological issues. New York: Academic Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, O. Defensible space. New York: Macmillan, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter, W. W., II. One part per million (letter). Science, 1972, 177, 476–477.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powers, W. T. Feedback: Beyond behaviorism. Science, 1973, 179, 351–356.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proshansky, H. M., Ittelson, W. H., and Rivlin, L. G. (Eds.). Environmental psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proshansky, H. M., Ittelson, W. H., and Rivlin, L. G. The influence of the physical environment on behavior: Some basic assumptions. In H. M. Proshansky, W. H. Ittelson, and L. G. Rivlin (Eds.), Environmental psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970, pp. 27–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raush, H. L. Naturalistic method and the dinical approach. In E. P. Willems and H. L. Raush (Eds.), Naturalistic viewpoints in psychological research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969, pp. 122–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raush, H. L., Dittmann, A. T., and Taylor, T. J. The interpersonal behavior of children in residential treatment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1959, 58, 9–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raush, H. L., Dittmann, A. T., and Taylor, T. J. Person, setting and change in social interaction. Human Relations, 1959, 12, 361–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raush, H. L., Farbman, I., and Llewellyn, L. G. Person, setting and change in social interaction: II. A normal-control study. Human Relations, 1960, 13, 305–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, W. C. An overview: Toward synthesis of models of disturbance. In W. C. Rhodes and M. L. Tracy (Eds.), A study of child variance. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972, pp. 541–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ronnebeck, R. W. A naturalistic investigation of community adjustment of facially disfigured burned teenagers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Houston, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenhan, D. L. On being sane in insane places. Science, 1973, 179, 250–258.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, W. Blaming the victim. New York: Pantheon, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sajwaj, T., Twardosz, S., and Burke, M. Side effects of extinction procedures in a remedial preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5, 163–175.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, R. C. Some ecological variables of community adjustment in a group of facially disfigured burned children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Houston, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sells, S. B. A model for the social system of the multiman, extended duration space ship. Aerospace Medicine, 1966, 37, 1130–1135.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sells, S. B. General theoretical problems related to organizational taxonomy: A model solution. In B. P. Indik and F. K. Berrien (Eds.), People, groups, and organizations. New York: Teachers College Press, 1968, pp. 27–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sells, S. B. Ecology and the science of psychology. In E. P. Willems and H. L. Raush (Eds.), Naturalistic viewpoints in psychological research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969, pp. 15–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, P., and McKinley, D. (Eds.). The subversive science: Essays toward an ecology of man. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. L. Ecology and field biology. New York: Harper and Row, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stokols, D., Smith, T. E., and Prostor, J. J. Partitioning and perceived crowding in a public space. American Behavioral Scientist, 1975, 18, 792–814.

    Google Scholar 

  • Struening, E. L., and Guttentag, M. (Eds.). Handbook of evaluation research. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuart, D. G. A naturalistic study of the daily activities of disabled and nondisabled college students. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Houston, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Studer, R. G. The organization of spatial stimuli. In J. F. Wohlwill and D. H. Carson (Eds.), Environment and the social sciences: Perspectives and applications. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1972, pp. 279–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toffler, A. Future shock. New York: Random House, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wahler, R. G. Some structural aspects of deviant child behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1975, 8, 27–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wahler, R. G., Sperling, K. A., Thomas, M. R., Teeter, N. C., and Luper, H. L. The modification of childhood stuttering: Some response-response relationships. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1970, 9, 411–428.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, B. Essays in social biology (3 vols.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watt, K. E. F. (Ed.). Systems analysis in ecology. New York: Academic Press, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watt, K. E. F. Ecology and resource management. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wicker, A. W. Attitudes versus actions: The relationship of verbal and overt behavioral responses to attitude objects. Journal of Social Issues, 1969, 25, 41–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wicker, A. W. An examination of the “other variables” explanation of attitude-behavior inconsistency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1971, 19, 18–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wicker, A. W. Processes which mediate behavior-environment congruence. Behavioral Science, 1972, 17, 265–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. An ecological orientation in psychology. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1965, 11, 317–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Behavioral validity of a test for measuring social anxiety. Psychological Reports, 1967, 21, 433–442.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Planning a rationale for naturalistic research. In E. P. Willems and H. L. Raush (Eds.), Naturalistic viewpoints in psychological research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969, pp. 44–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. The interface of the hospital environment and patient behavior. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 1972, 53, 115–122.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Place and motivation: Complexity and independence in patient behavior. In W. J. Mitchell (Ed.), Environmental design: Research and practice. Los Angeles: University of California at Los Angeles, 1972, pp. 431–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Behavior-environment systems: An ecological approach. Man Environment Systems, 1973, 3, 79–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Behavioral ecology and experimental analysis: Courtship is not enough. In J. R. Nesselroade and H. W. Reese (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: Methodological issues. New York: Academic Press, 1973, pp. 195–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Behavioral ecology as a perspective for man-environment research. In W. F. E. Preiser (Ed.), Environmental design research (vol. 2). Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 1973, pp. 152–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Go ye into all the world and modify behavior: An ecologist’s view. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 1973, 4, 93–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Behavioral technology and behavioral ecology. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 151–165.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Behavioral ecology as a perspective for research in psychology. In C. W. Deckner (Ed.), Methodological perspectives for behavioral research. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Behavioral ecology, health status, and health care: Applications to the rehabilitation setting. In I. Altman and J. F. Wohlwill (Eds.), Environment and behavior: Advances in research (vol. 1 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P. Relations of models to methods in behavioral ecology. In H. McGurk (Ed.), Ecological factors in human development. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P., and Campbell, D. E. Behavioral ecology: A new approach to health status and health care. In B. Honikman (Ed.), Responding to social change. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 1975, pp. 200–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willems, E. P., and Raush, H. L. (Eds.). Naturalistic viewpoints in psychological research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, H. F. Recording and analyzing child behavior. New York: Harper & Row, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, H. F. Children’s behavior in communities differing in size (5 vols.). Lawrence, Kans,: University of Kansas, 1969–1970.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1977 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Willems, E.P. (1977). Behavioral Ecology. In: Stokols, D. (eds) Perspectives on Environment and Behavior. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2277-1_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2277-1_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-2279-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-2277-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics