Abstract
The organism now known as Chlamydia trachomatis was first discovered in 1907 from the eye scrapings of adults with trachoma.1 The organism that formed inclusions within conjunctival cells of adults was also noted in 1909 to be present in the conjunctiva of neonates with nongonococcal ophthalmia neonatorium,2 and by the 1930s the organism was a well-established cause of neonatal conjunctivitis. It was also recognized by the 1940s that similar inclusions were present in the urethral discharge of men with nongonococcal urethritis and that discharge could infect the cervix of pregnant female partners who in turn infected the eyes of neonates during delivery.3 However, at this date, the organism had not been cultured, and it could only be identified by smear. The subsequent ability to culture Chlamydia—first in embryonated hen’s eggs and then in tissue culture—permitted what has now become a tremendous expansion of knowledge about both the organism and the diseases it causes. Prior cytologic methods used to detect C. trachomatis in the eye were too insensitive to identify the organism in genital tract secretions. Direct cytologic smears from the cervix, such as Giemsa stain, will detect only 20–40% of cervical culture-positive women. The ability to culture Chlamydia has led to the identification of many new infections and syndromes caused by C. trachomatis that would not have been recognized by using cytology.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Halberstaedter, L., and von Prowazek, S., 1907, Über Zelleinschliesse parasitärer Natur beim Trachom, Arbeit. Kaiserlichen Gesund. 26: 44.
Halberstaedter, L., and von Prowazek, S., 1909, Ueber Chlamydozoen befunde bei Blennorrhoea neonatorum non gonorrhoica, Berl. Klin. Wochenschr. 46: 1839.
Thygeson, P., and Stone, W., Jr., 1942, Epidemiology of inclusion conjunctivitis, Arch. Ophthalmol. 27: 91.
Wang, S. P., Grayston, J. T., Kuo, C.-C., et al, 1977, Serodiagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis infections with the microimmunofluorescence test, in: Nongonococcal Urethritis and Related Infection ( D. Hobson and K. K. Holmes, eds.), p. 237, American Society of Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
Tarn, M. R., Stamm, W. E., Handsfield, H. H., et al, 1984, Culture-dependent diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis using monoclonal antibodies, N. Engl. J. Med. 310: 1146.
Friss, R. R., 1972, Interaction of L cell and Chlamydia psittaci: Entry of parasite and host responses to its development, J. Bacteriol. 110: 706.
Armstrong, J. A., Valentine, R. C., and Fildes, C., 1963, Structure and replication of the trachoma agent in cell cultures as shown by electron microscopy, J. Gen. Microbiol. 30: 59.
Black, S. B., Grossman, M., Cles, L., and Schachter, J., 1981, Serologic evidence of chlamydial infection in children, J. Pediatr. 98: 65.
Schachter, J., and Dawson, C. R., 1977, Comparative efficiency of various diagnostic methods for chlamydial infection, in: Nongonoccal Urethritis and Related Infections ( D. Hobson and K. K. Holmes, eds.), p. 337, American Society of Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
Schachter, J., Stoner, E., and Moncada, E., 1983, Screening for chlamydial infections in women attending family planning clinics, West. J. Med. 138: 375.
Hammerschlag, M. R., Chandler, J. W., Alexander, E. R., et al., 1982, Longitudinal studies on chlamydial infections in the first year of life, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 1: 395.
Schachter, J., Grossman, M., Holt, T., et al., 1979, Infection with Chlamydia trachomatis: Involvement of multiple anatomic sites in neonates, J. Infect. Dis. 139: 232.
Shafer, M.-A., Beck, A., Blain, B., et al., 1984, Chlamydia trachomatis: Important rela-tionships to race, contraception, lower genital tract infection and Papanicolaou smear, J. Pediatr. 104: 141.
Chacko, M. R., and Lovchik, J. C., 1984, Chlamydia trachomatis infection in sexually active adolescents: Prevalence and risk factors, Pediatrics 73: 836.
Washington, A. E., Gove, S., Schachter, J., and Sweet, R. L., 1985, Oral contraceptive Chlamydia trachomatis infection, and pelvic inflammatory disease, J.A.M.A. 253: 2246.
Eager, R. M., Beach, R. K., Davidson, A. J., andjudson, F. N., 1985, Epidemiologic and clinical factors of Chlamydia trachomatis in Black, Hispanic and White female adolescents, West. J. Med. 143: 37.
Stamm, W. E., Wagner, K. F., Amsel, R., et al., 1980, Causes of the acute urethral syndrome in women, N. Engl. J. Med. 303: 409.
Brunham, R. C., Paavonen, J., Stevens, C., etal, 1984, Mucopurulent cervicitis—The ignored counterpart in women of urethritis in men, N. Engl. J. Med. 311: 1.
Regan, J. A., Chao, S., and James, L. S., 1981, Premature rupture of membranes, preterm delivery, and Group B streptococcal colonization of mothers, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 141: 184.
Braun, P., Lee, Y.-H., Klein, J. O., et al., 1971, Birth weight and genital mycoplasmas in pregnancy, N. Engl. J. Med. 284: 168.
Kass, E. H., McCormack, W. M., Lin, J.-S., et al., 1981, Genital mycoplasmas as a cause of excess premature delivery, Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians 94: 261.
Harwick, H.J., Purcell, R. H., Iuppa,J. B.,etal., 1970, Mycoplasma hominis and abortion, J. Infect. Dis. 121: 260.
Hardy, P. H., Hardy, J. B., Nell, E. E., etal., 1984, Prevalence of six sexually transmitted disease agents among pregnant inner city adolescents and pregnancy outcome, Lancet 2: 333.
Martin, D. H., Koutsky, L., Eschenbach, D. A., et al., 1982, Prematurity and perinatal mortality in pregnancies complicated by maternal Chlamydia trachomatis infections, J.A.M.A. 247: 1585.
Harrison, H. R., Alexander, E. R., Weinstein, L., et al, 1983, Cervical Chlamydia trachomatis and mycoplasmal infections in pregnancy: Epidemiology and outcomes, J.A.M.A. 250: 1721.
Gravett, G. G., Hummel, D., Eschenbach, D. A., and Holmes, K. K., 1986, Preterm labor associated with subclinical amniotic fluid infection and with bacterial vaginosis, Obstet. Gynecol. 67: 229.
Harrison, R. C., and Riggin, R. T., 1979, Infections of untreated human amnion monolayers with Chlamydia trachomatis, J. Infect. Dis. 140: 968.
McDonald, P. C., Porter, J. C., Schwartz, B. E., et al., 1978, Initiation of parturition in the human female, Semin. Perinatal. 2: 273.
Heggie, A. D., Lumicao, G. G., Stuart, L. A., and Gyves, M. T., 1981, Chlamydia trachomatis infection in mothers and infants, Am. J. Dis. Child. 135: 507.
Thompson, S., Lopez, B., Wong, K.-H., etal., 1982, A prospective study of chlamydia and mycoplasma infections during pregnancy: Relation to pregnancy outcome and maternal morbidity, in: Chlamydial Infections ( P.-A. Märdh, K. K. Holmes, J. D. Oriel etal., eds.), p. 155, Elsevier Biomedical Press, New York.
Grossman, M., Schachter, J., Sweet, R., etal, 1982, Prospective studies in chlamydia in newborns, in: Chlamydial Infections ( P.-A., Märdh, K. K. Holmes, J. D. Oriel, eds.), p. 213, Elsevier Biomedical Press, New York.
Ismail, M. A., Chandler, A. E., Beem, M. O., and Moawad, A. H., 1985, Chlamydial colonization of the cervix in pregnant adolescent, J. Reprod. Med. 30: 549.
Page, L. A., and Smith, P. C., 1976, Placentitis and abortion in cattle inoculated with chlamydia isolated from aborted human placental tissue, Proc. Soc. Exp. Med. 146: 269.
Armstrong, J. H., Zacarias, F., and Rein, M. F., 1976, Ophthalmia neonatorum: A chart review, Pediatrics 57: 884.
Naib, Z. M., 1970, Cytology of TRIC agent infection of the eye of newborn infants and their mother’s genital tracts, Acta Cytol. 14: 390.
Chandler, J. W., Alexander, E. R., Pheiffer, T. A., et al., 1977, Ophthalmia neonatorum associated with maternal chlamydial infections, Trans. Am. Acad. Ophthalmol. Otolaryngol. 83: 302.
Schachter, J., Grossman, M., Holt, J., et al, 1979, Prospective study of chlamydial infection in neonates, Lancet 2: 377.
Frommell, G. R., Rothenberg, R., Wang, S.-P., et al., 1979, Chlamydial infection of mothers and their infants, J. Pediatr. 95: 28.
Hammerschlag, M. R., Anderka, M., Semine, D. Z., et al, 1979, Prospective study of maternal and infantile infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, Pediatrics 64: 142.
Hammerschlag, M. R., Chandler, J. W., Alexander, E. R., et al., 1980, Erythromycin ointment for ocular prophylaxis of neonatal chlamydial infection, J.A.M.A. 244: 2291.
Märdh, P.-A., Heiin, I., Bobeck, S., etal, 1980, Colonisation of pregnant and puerperal women and neonates with Chlamydia trachomatis, Br. J. Vener. Dis. 56: 96.
Harrison, H. R., Boyce, W. T., Haffner, W. H., et al, 1983, The prevalence of genital Chlamydia trachomatis and mycoplasmal infections during pregnancy in an American Indian population, Sex. Trans. Dis. 10: 184.
Khurana, C. M., Deddish, P. A., and delMundo, F., 1985, Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis in the pregnant cervix, Obstet. Gynecol. 66: 241.
Thygeson, P., and Mengert, W. F., 1936, The virus of inclusion conjunctivitis: Further observations, Arch. Ophthalmol. 15: 377.
Dunlop, E. M. C., Harper, I. A., Khalaf Al-Heissaini, M., et al., 1966, Relations of TRIC agent to nonspecific genital infection, Br. J. Vener. Dis. 42: 77.
Mordhorst, C. H., and Dawson, C. R., 1971, Sequelae of neonatal inclusion conjunctivitis and associated disease in parents, Am. J. Ophthalmol. 71: 861.
Rees, E., Tait, A. A., Hobson, D., et al., 1977, Chlamydia in relation to cervical infection and pelvic inflammatory disease, in: Nongonococcal Urethritis and Related Infections ( K. K. Holmes and D. Hobson, eds.), p. 67, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
Wager, G. P., Martin, D. H., Koutsky, L., etal., 1980, Puerperal infectious morbidity: Relationship to route of delivery and to antepartum Chlamydia trachomatis infection, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 138: 1028.
Blanco, J. D., Diaz, K. C., Lipscomb, K. A., et al., 1985, Chlamydia trachomatis isolation in patients with endometritis after cesarean section, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 152: 278.
Hoyme, U. B., Kiviat, N., and Eschenbach, D. A., 1986, The microbiology and treatment of late postpartum endometritis, Obstet. Gynecol., in press.
Moore, D. E., Spadoni, L. R., Foy, H. M., et al, 1982, Increased frequency of serum antibodies to Chlamydia trachomatis in infertility due to distal tubal disease, Lancet 2: 574.
Miller, B. R., Ahrons, S., Laurin, J., and Märdh, P.-A., 1982, Pelvic infection after elective abortion associated with Chlamydia trachomatis, Obstet. Gynecol. 59: 210.
Schaefer, C., Harrison, H. R., Boyce, W. T., and Lewis, M.: 1985, Illnesses in infants born to women with Chlamydia trachomatis infection, Am. J. Dis. Child. 139: 127.
Beem, M. O., and Saxon, E. M., 1977, Respiratory tract colonization and a distinctive pneumonia syndrome in infants infected with Chlamydia trachomatis, N. Engl. J. Med. 296: 306.
Harrison, H. R., English, M. G., Lee, C. K., and Alexander, E. R., 1978, Chlamydia trachomatis infant pneumonitis: Comparison with matched controls and other infant pneumonitis, N. Engl. J. Med. 298: 702.
Beem, M. O., Saxon, E., and Tipple, M. A., 1979, Treatment of chlamydial pneumonia of infancy, Pediatrics 63: 198.
Tipple, M. A., Beem, M., and Saxon, E., 1979, Clinical characteristics of the afebrile pneumonia associated with Chlamydia trachomatis infection in infants less than 6 months of age, Pediatrics 63: 192.
Hammerschlag, M. R., Hammerschlag, P. E., and Alexander, E. R., 1980, The role of Chlamydia trachomatis in middle ear effusions in children, Pediatrics 66: 615.
Black, S. B., Grossman, M., Cles, L., and Schachter, J., 1981, Serologic evidence of chlamydial infection in children, J. Pediatr. 98: 65.
Harrison, H. R., Riggins, R. M., Alexander, E. R., and Weinstein, L., 1984, In vitro activity of clindamycin against strains of Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum isolated from pregnant women, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 149: 477.
Stamm, W. E., and Holmes, K. K., 1984, Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the adult, in: Sexually Transmitted Diseases ( K. K. Holmes, P.-A. Märdh, P. F. Aparling, eds.), p. 258, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bowie, W. R., Manzon, L. M., Barrie-Hume, C. J., et al., 1982, Efficacy of treatment regimens for lower urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis infection in women, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 142: 125.
Brunham, R. C., Kuo, C.-C., Stevens, C. E., and Holmes, K. K., 1982, Treatment of concomitant Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis infections in women: Comparison of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole with ampicillin-probenecid, Rev. Infect. Dis. 4: 491.
Sweet, R. L., Schachter, J., and Robbie, M. O., 1983, Failure of ß-lactam antibiotics to eradicate Chlamydia trachomatis in the endometrium despite apparent clinical cure of acute salpingitis, J.A.M.A. 250: 2641.
McCormack, W. M., George, H., Donner, A., et al., 1977, Hepatic toxicity of erythromycin estolate during pregnancy, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 12: 630.
Holmes, K. K., Handsfield, H. H., Wang, S.-P., et al., 1975, Etiology of nongonococcal urethritis, N. Engl. J. Med. 292: 1199.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1986 Aubrey Milunsky, Emanuel A. Friedman, and Louis Gluck
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Eschenbach, D.A. (1986). Chlamydial Infection. In: Milunsky, A., Friedman, E.A., Gluck, L. (eds) Advances in Perinatal Medicine. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-9468-0_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-9468-0_6
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4615-9470-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-9468-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive