Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Advances in Perinatal Medicine pp 1–42Cite as

Nutritional Supplementation of the Growth-Retarded Fetus

Rationale, Theoretical Considerations, and in Vivo Studies

  • Chapter

Abstract

In the United States and Great Britain, approximately one-third of all infants born weighing less than 2500 g are not premature but are rather mature infants whose growth has been retarded in utero.1 Even preterm infants may be markedly undergrown for their dates.2 These intrauterine growth-retarded, or small-for-gestational-age infants, have a higher neonatal death rate than do normally grown infants of the same gestation.3,4 They have an increased incidence of neonatal problems and long-term adverse sequelae,1 including a reduction in ultimate stature5–8 and neurologic abnormalities.9–11 To avoid these damaging sequelae, means of preventing growth retardation have been sought. One approach that has been suggested, and tried in the human, is intrauterine nutritional supplementation of the poorly growing fetus.12 It is the purpose of this chapter to present the rationale behind considering nutritional therapy, to discuss the theoretical considerations important in administering nutrients to the fetus, and to review the human and animal studies carried out thus far.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Cassady, G., 1981, The small-for date infant, in: Neonatology, 2nd ed. ( G. Avery, ed.), p. 262, J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Lubchenco, L., 1981, Assessment of weight and gestational age, in: Neonatology, 2nd ed. ( G. Avery, ed.), p. 205, J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Cunningham, G., Hawes, W., Madore, C., et al., 1976, Intrauterine Growth and Neonatal Risk in California, Infant Health Section, Maternal and Child Health, State of California, Department of Health.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Lubchenco, L., Searls, D., and Brazie, J., 1972, Neonatal mortality rate: Relationship to birth weight and gestational age, J. Pediatr. 81: 814.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Faulkner, F., 1981, Maternal nutrition and fetal growth. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34 (suppl): 769.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Low, J., Galbraith, R., Muir, D., et al., 1982, Intrauterine growth retardation: A study of long term morbidity, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 142: 670.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Harvey, D., Prince, J., Bunton, T., et al., 1982, Abilities of children who were small for gestational age babies, Pediatrics 69: 296.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Fitzhardinge, P., and Steven, E., 1972, The small for date infant. I. Later growth patterns, Pediatrics 49: 671.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Allen, M., 1984, Developmental outcome and followup of the small for gestational age infant, Semin. Perinatal. 8: 123.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Fitzhardinge, P., and Steven, E., 1972, The small for date infant. II. Neurological and intellectual sequelae, Pediatrics 50: 50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Babson, S. G., and Phillips, D., 1973, Growth and development of twins dissimilar in size at birth, N. Engl. J. Med. 289: 937.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Charlton, V., 1984, Fetal nutritional supplementation. Semin. Perinatol. 8: 25.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Battaglia, F., and Meschia, G., 1978, Principal substrates of fetal metabolism, Physiol. Rev. 58: 499.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. James, E., Raye, J., Gresham, E., et al, 1972, Fetal oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production and glucose uptake in a chronic sheep preparation, Pediatrics 50: 361.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Simmons, M., Battaglia, F., and Meschia, G., 1979, Placental transfer of glucose, Dev. Physiol. 1: 227.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Morriss, F., Makowski, E., Meschia, G., et al., 1975, The glucose/oxygen quotient of the term human fetus, Biol. Neonate 25: 44.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Schreiner, R., Burd, L., Jones, M. D., et al., 1978, Fetal metabolism in fasting sheep, in: Fetal and Newborn Cardiovascular Physiology, Vol. 2 ( L. Longo and D. Reneau, eds.), p. 197, Garland Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Jones, M., 1979, Energy metabolism in the developing brain, Semin. Perinatol. 3: 121.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Gresham, E., James, E., Raye, J., et al., 1972, Production and excretion of urea by the fetal lamb, Pediatrics 50: 372.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Soltesz, G., Harris, D., Mackenzie, I., et al., 1985, The metabolic and endocrine milieu of the human fetus and mother at 18–21 weeks of gestation. I. Plasma amino acid concentrations, Pediatr. Res. 19: 91.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Lemons, J., Adcock, E., Jones, M. D., et al., 1976, Umbilical uptake of amino acids in the unstressed fetal lamb, J. Clin. Invest. 58: 1428.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Levy, H., Lenke, R., and Koch, R., 1984, Lack of fetal effect on blood phenylalanine concentration in maternal phenylketonuria, J. Pediatr. 104: 245.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Kerr, G., Chamove, A., Harlow, H., et al, 1968, Fetal PKU: The effect of maternal hyperphenylalaninemia during pregnancy in the rhesus monkey, Pediatrics 42: 27.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Nicholson, J., 1983, Inborn errors of metabolism, in: Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine ( A. Fanaroff and R. Martin, ed.), p. 815, C. V. Mosby, St. Louis.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Lipson, A., Beuhler, B., Bartley, J., et al., 1984, Maternal hyperphenylalaninemia, Fetal effects, J. Pediatr. 104: 216.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Lemons, J., and Schreiner, R., 1983, Amino acid metabolism in the ovine fetus. Am. J. Physiol. 244: E459.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Young, M., 1974, The influence of a reduction in maternal, placental blood flow on the placental transfer of glucose, total amino nitrogen, leucine, and lysine, in: Size at Birth, Ciba Symposium 27 ( G. Dawes, ed.), p. 22, Elsevier, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Burd, L., Jones, M. D., Simmons, M., et al., 1975, Placental production and foetal utilization of lactate and pyruvate, Nature (Loud.) 254: 710.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Charlton Char, V., and Creasy, R., 1976, Lactate and pyruvate as fetal metabolic substrates, Pediatr. Res. 10: 231.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Sparks, J., Hay, W., Bonds, D., et al., 1982, Simultaneous measurements of lactate turnover rate and umbilical lactate uptake in the fetal lamb, J. Clin. Invest. 70: 179.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Gleason, C., Rudolph, C., Bristow, J., et al., 1985, Lactate uptake by the fetal sheep liver, J. Dev. Physiol. 7: 177.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Hull, D., 1975, Storage and supply of fatty acids before and after birth, Br. Med. Bull. 31: 32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Dancis, J., Jansen, V., Kayden, H., et al., 1973, Transfer across the perfused human placenta. II. Free fatty acids, Pediatr. Res. 7: 192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Hummel, L., Schirrmeister, W., and Wagner, H., 1975, Quantitative evaluation of the maternal-fetal transfer of free fatty acids in the rat, Biol. Neonate 26: 263.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Edson, J., Hudson, D., and Hull, D., 1975, Evidence for increased fatty acid transfer across the placenta during a maternal fast in rabbits, Biol. Neonate 27: 50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Pavey, D., and Widdowson, E., 1980, Body lipids of guinea pigs exposed to different dietary fats from mid-gestation to three months of age. V. The fatty acid composition of the brain lipids at birth, Nutr. Metab. 24: 357.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Ballard, F., 1972, Supply and utilization of acetate in mammals, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 25: 773.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Charlton Char, V., and Creasy, R., 1976, Acetate as a metabolic substrate in the fetal lamb. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 357.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Comline, R., and Silver, M., 1976, Some aspects of foetal and uteroplacental metab-olism in cows with indwelling umbilical, uterine, vascular catheters, J. Physiol. (Lond.) 260: 571.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Plotz, E., Kabara, J., Davis, M., et al., 1968, Studies on the synthesis of cholesterol in the brain of the human fetus, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 101: 534.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. James, E., Meschia, G., and Battaglia, F., 1971, A-V differences of free fatty acids and glycerol in the ovine umbilical circulation, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 138: 823.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Morriss, F., Boyd, R., Makowski, E., et al., 1974, Umbilical V—A differences of ace- tocetate and betahydroxybutyrate in fed and starved ewes, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 145: 879.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Charlton Char, V., and Creasy, R., 1977, Fetal umbilical venous—arterial differences in citrate in the chronically catherised sheep, Res. Vet. Sci. 23: 130.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Miodovnik, M., Lavin, J., Harrington, D., etal., 1982, Effect of maternal ketoacidemia on the pregnant ewe and fetus, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 144: 585.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Hurley, L., 1980, Fat soluble vitamins and water soluble vitamins, in: Developmental Nutrition, p. 125, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Smithells, R., Sheppard, S., and Schorah, C., 1976, Vitamin deficiencies and neural tube defects, Arch. Dis. Child. 51: 944.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Smithells, R., Sheppard, S., Schorah, C., et al., 1981, Apparent prevention of neural tube defects by periconceptual vitamin supplementation, Arch Dis. Child. 56: 911.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Editorial, 1985, Vitamin A and teratogenesis, Lancet 1: 319.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Hurley, L., 1980, Trace elements. I. Iron, copper, iodine. II. Manganese and zinc, in: Developmental Nutrition, p. 183, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Meadows, N., Smith, M., Keeling, P., etal., 1981, Zinc and small babies, Lancet 11: 1135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Soltan, M., and Jenkins, D., 1982, Maternal and fetal plasma zinc concentration and fetal abnormality, Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 89: 56.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Rudolph, A., 1984, Oxygenation in the fetus and neonate-A perspective, Semin. Perinatol 8: 158.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Clapp, J., Szeto, H., Larrow, R., etal., 1981, Fetal metabolic response to experimental, placental, vascular damage, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 40: 446.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Dobbing, J., 1984, Infant nutrition and later achievement, Nutr. Rev. 42: 1.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Brandt, I., 1981, Brain growth, fetal malnutrition and clinical consequences, J. Perinatol Med. 9: 3.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Volpe, J., 1977, Normal and abnormal human brain development, Clin. Perinatol. 4: 3.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Abrams, R., Ito, M., Frisinger, J., et al., 1984, Local cerebral glucose utilization in fetal and neonatal sheep, Am. J. Physiol. 246: R608.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Somjen, G., 1983, Neurophysiology-The Essentials, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Charlton, V., and Johengen, M., 1984, Nutrient and waste product concentration differences in upper and lower body arteries of fetal sheep, J. Dev. Physiol. 6: 431.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Nitzan, M., Orloff, S., and Schulman, J., 1979, Placental transfer of analogs of glucose and amino acids in experimental intrauterine growth retardation, Pediatr. Res. 13: 100.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Crawford, M., Williams, G., and Hassam, A., 1976, Essential fatty acids and fetal brain growth, Lancet 1: 452.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Cremer, J., 1982, Substrate utilization and brain development, J. Cerebral Blood Flow Metab. 2: 394.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Clapp, J., McLaughlin, M., Gellis, J., et al., 1984, Regional distribution of cerebral blood flow in experimental intrauterine growth retardation, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 150: 843.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Furlow, T., Martin, R., and Harrison, L., 1983, Simultaneous measurement of local glucose utilization and blood flow in the rat brain: An autoradiographic method using two tracers labeled with carbon-14, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 3: 62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Miller, H., and Merritt, A., 1979, Objectives, in: Fetal Growth in Humans, p. 1, Yearbook Medical Publishers, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Gaston, A., 1982, Small for gestational age infants, in: Pediatrics Seventeenth edition ( A. Rudolph, ed.), p. 154, Appleton-Century-Crofts, East Norwalk, Conn.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Molteni, R., Stys, S., and Battaglia, F., 1978, Relationship of fetal and placental weight in human beings: Fetal/placental weight ratios at various gestational ages and birth weight distributions, J. Reprod. Med. 21: 327.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Kliegman, R., and King, K., 1983, Intrauterine growth retardation: Determinants of abnormal fetal growth, in: Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, 3rd ed. ( A. Fanaroff and R. Martin, eds.), p. 49, C. V. Mosby, St. Louis.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Miller, H., and Merritt, A., 1979, Abnormal factors affecting fetal growth, in: Fetal Growth in Humans, p. 25, Yearbook Medical Publishers, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Naeye, R., 1965, Malnutrition-Probable cause of fetal growth retardation, Arch. Pathol. 79: 284.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Naeye, R., and Kelly, J., 1966, Judgement of fetal age, Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 13: 849.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Sokol, R., Kazzi, G., Kalhan, S., et al., 1982, Identifying the pregnancy at risk for intrauterine growth retardation: Possible usefulness of the intravenous glucose tolerance test, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 143: 220.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Haymond, M., Karl, I., and Pagliara, A., 1974, Increased gluconeogenic substrates in the small-for-gestational age infant, N. Engl. J. Med. 291: 322.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Mestyan, J., Soltesz, G., Schultz, K., et al., 1975, Hyperaminoacidemias due to the accumulation of gluconeogenic amino acid precursors in hypoglycemic small-for- gestational age infants, J. Pediatr. 87: 409.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Churchill, J.,Moghissi, K., Evans, T., etal., 1969, Relationships of maternal amino acid blood levels to fetal development, Obstet. Gynecol. 33: 492.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Moghissi, K., Churchill, J., and Kurrie, D., 1975, Relationship of maternal amino acids and proteins to fetal growth and mental development, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 123: 398.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. McClain, P., Metcoff, J., Crosby, W., et al, 1978, Relationship of maternal amino acid profiles at 25 weeks gestation to fetal growth, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31: 401.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Renaud, R., Kirschtetter, L., Koehl, C., et al., 1974, Amino acid intraamniotic injection, in: Recent Progress in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Proceedings of the Seventh World Congress of Obstetrics and Gynecology ( L. Persianinov, T. Chervakova, and J. Presl, eds.), p. 234, Excerpta Medica, Prague.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Lindblad, B., 1971, The plasma aminogram in small for dates newborn infants, in: Metabolic Processes in the Newborn Infant ( J. Jonxis, H. Visser, and J. Troelstra, eds.), p. 191, S. Karger, Basel.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Butterfield, J., and O’Brien, D., 1963, The effect of maternal toxemia and diabetes on transplacental gradients of free amino acids, Arch. Dis. Child. 38: 326.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Evans, M., Mukherjee, A., and Schulman, J., 1983, Animal models of intrauterine growth retardation, Obstet. Gynecol. Surv. 38: 183.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Wallace, L., 1948, The growth of lambs before and after birth in relation to the level of nutrition. II and III, J. Agric. Sei. 38: 243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Wallace, L., 1948, The growth of lambs before and after birth in relation to the level of nutrition. Ill, J Agric. Sei. 38: 367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Koritnik, D., Humphrey, W., Kaltenbach, C., et al., 1981, Effects of maternal undernutrition on the development of the ovine fetus and the associated changes in growth hormone and prolactin, Biol. Reprod. 24: 125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Charlton, V., and Johengen, M., 1982, Metabolism of the fetal lamb growth retarded by maternal malnutrition, Pediatr. Res. 16: 109A (abs.).

    Google Scholar 

  86. Creasy, R., Barrett, C., DeSwiet, M., et al., 1972, Experimental intrauterine growth retardation in the sheep, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 112: 566.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Robinson, J., Kingston, E., Jones, C., et al., 1979, Studies in experimental growth retardation in sheep. The effect of removal of endometrial caruncles on fetal size and metabolism, J. Dev. Physiol. 1: 379.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Emmanouilides, G., Townsend, D., and Bauer, R., 1968, Effects of simple umbilical artery ligation in the lamb fetus, Pediatrics 42: 919.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Hobel, C., Emmanouilides, G., Townsend, D., et al, 1970, Ligation of one umbilical artery in the fetal lamb, Obstet. Gynecol. 36: 582.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Oh, W., Omori, K., Hobel, C., et al, 1975, Umbilical blood flow and glucose uptake in the lamb fetus following simple umbilical artery ligation, Biol. Neonate 26: 291.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Alexander, G., 1974, Birth weight of lambs: Influences and consequences, in: Size at Birth, Ciba Symposium 27 ( G. Dawes, ed.), p. 215, Elsevier, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Creasy, R., DeSwiet, M., Kahanpaa, K., et al, 1973, Pathophysiological changes in the foetal lamb with growth retardation, in: Foetal and Neonatal Physiology, Proceedings of the Sir Joseph Barcroft Centenary Symposium ( K. Cross, ed.), p. 398, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Charlton Char, V., and Creasy, R., 1977, Glucose and oxygen metabolism in normally oxygenated and spontaneously hypoxemic fetal lambs, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol 127: 499.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Charlton, V., and Johengen, M., 1983, Effects of fetal nutritional supplements on growth retardation, in: Program of the Society for Gynecologic Investigation, Thirtieth Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., p. 114 (abs.).

    Google Scholar 

  95. Charlton, V., and Johengen, M., 1985, Effects of intrauterine nutritional supple-mentation on fetal growth retardation, Biol. Neonate 48: 125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Clapp, J., Szeto, H., Larrow, R., et al., 1980, Umbilical blood flow response to em-bolization of the uterine circulation, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol 138: 60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Itskovitz, J., LaGamma, E., and Rudolph, A., 1983, The effect of reducing umbilical blood flow on fetal oxygenation, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol 145: 813.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Clapp, J., 1978, The relationship between blood flow and oxygen uptake in the uterine and umbilical circulations, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol 132: 410.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Charlton, V., and Reis, B., 1981, Effects of gastric nutritional supplementation on fetal umbilical uptake of nutrients, Am. J. Physiol 241: E178.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Wilkening, R., and Meschia, G., 1983, Fetal oxygen uptake, oxygenation and acid-base balance as a function of uterine blood flow. Am. J. Physiol 244: H749.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Wigglesworth, J., 1974, Animal model: Uterine vessel ligation in the pregnant rat, Am. J. Pathol 77: 347.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Vileisis, R., 1985, Effect of maternal oxygen inhalation on the fetus with growth retardation, Pediatr. Res. 19: 324.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Saintonge, J., and Rosso, P., 1981, Placental blood flow and transfer of nutrient analogs in large, average and small guinea pig litter mates, Pediatr. Res. 15: 152.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Charlton, V., and Johengen, M., 1985, Blood substrate levels in ovo: relationship to fetal size, Pediatr. Res. 19: 152A.

    Google Scholar 

  105. McCutcheon, I., Metcalfe, J., Metzenberg, A., etal., 1982, Organ growth in hyperoxic and hypoxic chick embryos, Respir. Physiol. 50: 153.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Bissonette, J., Holzimer, A., Richardson, B., et al., 1983, Fetal cerebral glucose uptake is limited by blood brain barrier transport, in: Program of the Society for Gynecologic Investigation, Thirtieth Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., p. Ill (abs.).

    Google Scholar 

  107. Richardson, B., Hohimer, A., Bissonette, J., etal, 1983, Effect of insulin induced hypoglycemia on cerebral metabolism in the fetal lamb, in: Program of the Society for Gynecologic Investigation, Thirtieth Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., p. 299 (abs.).

    Google Scholar 

  108. Pell, J., and Bergman, E., 1983, Cerebral metabolism of amino acids and glucose in fed and fasted sheep, Am. J. Physiol 244: E282.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Schulman, J., Mann, L., Doores, L., et al, 1975, Amino acid metabolism by the fetal brain during normal and hypoglycemic conditions, Biol Neonate 25: 57.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Clos, J., Favre, C., Selme-Matrat, M., et al, 1977, Effects of undernutrition on cell formation in the rat brain and especially on cellular composition of the cerebellum, Brain Res. 123: 13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Robain, O., and Ponset, G., 1978, Effects of undernutrition on glial maturation, Brain Res., 149: 379.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Resnik, O., and Morgane, P., 1983, Animal models for small for gestational age neonates and infants at risk, Brain Res. 312: 221.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Hill, D., Myers, R., Holt, A., et al, 1971, Fetal growth retardation produced by experimental placental insufficiency in the rhesus monkey, Biol Neonate 19: 68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Chase, P., Welch, N., Dabiere, C., etal, 1972, Alterations in human brain biochemistry following IUGR, Pediatrics 50: 403.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Gonzalez-Sastre, F., Rodes, M., Sabater, J., et al., 1978, Intrauterine growth retar-dation: Biochemical changes in human central nervous system, An. Esp. Pediatr. 11: 13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Harel, S., Shapira, Y., Hartzler, J., et al., 1978, Neuromotor development in relation to birth weight in rabbits, Biol Neonate 33: 1.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Commey, J., and Fitzhardinge, P., 1979, Handicap in the preterm, small for gestational age infant, J. Pediatr. 94: 779.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Kitchen, W., Ford, G., Orgill, A., et al, 1984, Outcome in infants wih birthweight 500 to 999 gm, J. Pediatr. 104: 921.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Fancourt, R., Campbell, S., Harvey, D., etal, 1976, Followup of small-for-dates babies, Br. Med. J. 1: 1435.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Robillard, J., Sessions, C., Kennedy, R., et al, 1978, Metabolic effects of constant hypertonic glucose infusion in well-oxygenated fetuses, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol 130: 199.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Shelly, H., Bassett, J., and Miliner, R., 1975, Control of carbohydrate metabolism in the fetus and newborn, Br. Med. Bull. 31: 37.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Fletcher, A., 1981, The infant of the diabetic mother, in: Neonatology, 2nd ed. ( G. Avery, ed.), p. 287, J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Heird, W., and Winters, R., 1975, Total parenteral nutrition, J. Pediatr. 86: 2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Mauer, A., Collipp, P., Dweck, H., et al., 1983, Commentary on parenteral nutrition, Pediatrics 71: 547.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Edelstone, D., Rudolph, A., Heymann, M., 1978, Liver and ductus venosus blood flows in fetal lambs in utero, Circ. Res. 42: 426.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Davis, E., and Potter, E., 1946, Intrauterine respiration of the human fetus, J.A.M.A. 131: 1194.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Gitlin, D., Kumate, J., Morales, C., etal., 1972, The turnover of amniotic fluid protein in the human conceptus, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 113: 632.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Pritchard, J., 1965, Deglutition by normal and anencephalic fetuses, Obstet. Gynecol. 25: 289.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Mistretta, C., and Bradley, R., 1975, Taste and swallowing in utero, Br. Med. Bull. 31: 80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Riddick, D., Maslar, I., Luciano, A., et al., 1979, Thyroxine uptake and metabolism by fetal sheep after intraamniotic thyroxine injection. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 133: 618.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Becker, R., Windle, W., Barth, E., et al, 1940, Fetal swallowing, gastro-intestinal activity and defecation in amnio, Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 70: 603.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Heller, L., 1974, Intrauterine amino acid feeding of the fetus, in: Parenteral Nutrition in Infancy and Childhood ( H. Bode and J. Warshaw, eds.), p. 206, Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Saling, E., Dudenhausen, J., and Kynast, G., 1974, Basic investigations about compensatory nutrition of the malnourished fetus, in: Recent Progress in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Proceedings of the VII World Congress of Obstetrics and Gynecology ( L. Persianinov, T. Chervakova, and J. Presl, eds.), p. 227, Excerpta Medica, Prague.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Massobrio, M., Margaria, E., Campogravide, M., et al, 1975, Treatment of severe feto-placental insufficiency by means of intraamniotic injection of amino acids, in: Therapy of Feto-Placental Insufficiency ( B. Salvadori, ed.), p. 296, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  135. Charlton, V., and Johengen, M., 1984, Intraamniotic administration of nutrients, Pediatr. Res. 18: 136A (abs.).

    Google Scholar 

  136. Milley, J. R., Rosenberg, A., Phillips, A., et al., 1984, The effect of insulin on fetal oxygen extraction. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 149; 673.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Harrison, M., and Villa, R., 1982, Trans-amniotic fetal feeding I. Development of an animal model: Continuous amniotic infusion in rabbits, J. Pediatr. Surg. 17: 376.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Mulvihill, S., Albert, A., Synn, A., et al., 1985, In utero supplemental fetal feeding in an animal model: Effects on fetal growth and development, Surgery 98: 500.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Charlton, V., and Reis, B., 1980, Response of the chronically catheterized fetal lamb to intestinal administration of amino acids, Clin. Res. 28: 121A (abs.).

    Google Scholar 

  140. Charlton, V., 1984, Nutrient administration to the fetus via gastrointestinal, vascular and intraamniotic routes, in: Animal Models in Fetal Medicine, Vol. IV ( P. Nathianelsz, ed.), p. 59, Perinatology Press, Ithaca, N.Y.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Charlton, V., and Rudolph, A., 1979, Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates by the fetal lamb in utero, Pediatr. Res. 13: 1018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Prior, R., and Christensen, R., 1977, Gluconeogenesis from alanine in vivo by the ovine fetus and lamb, Am. J. Physiol. 233: E462.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Young, M., Soltesz, G., Noakes, D., et al., 1975, The influence of intrauterine surgery and of fetal intravenous nutritional supplements (in utero) on plasma free amino acid homeostasis in the pregnant ewe, J. Perinat. Med. 3: 180.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Dudenhausen, J. W., Gutsche, H. V., and Koch, M., 1973, Zur intrauterinen ernah- rung des mangelversorgten feten, Fortschr. Med. 91: 1264.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Pitkin, R., and Reynolds, W. A., 1975, Fetal ingestion and metabolism of amniotic fluid protein, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 123: 356.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Al-Murrani, W., 1982, Effect of injecting amino acids into the egg on embryonic and subsequent growth in the domestic fowl, Br. Poult. Sei. 23: 171.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. National Academy of Sciences, 1975, Nutrient Requirements of Sheep, 5th ed. p. 42, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Charlton, V., and Johengen, M., 1986, Nutrient supplementation of fetuses growth retarded by placental embolization, Pediatr. Res. 20: 185A (abs.).

    Google Scholar 

  149. Edelstone, D., and Rudolph, A., 1979, Preferential streaming of ductus venosus blood to the brain and heart in fetal lambs, Am. J. Physiol 237: H724.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, California, 94143, USA

    Valerie Charlton

Authors
  1. Valerie Charlton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Aubrey Milunsky MB.B.Ch., D.Sc., F.R.C.P., D.C.H.

  2. Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Emanuel A. Friedman M.D., Sc.D.

  3. Irvine School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California, USA

    Louis Gluck M.D.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1986 Aubrey Milunsky, Emanuel A. Friedman, and Louis Gluck

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Charlton, V. (1986). Nutritional Supplementation of the Growth-Retarded Fetus. In: Milunsky, A., Friedman, E.A., Gluck, L. (eds) Advances in Perinatal Medicine. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-9468-0_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-9468-0_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4615-9470-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-9468-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation