Abstract
The kibbutz is a form of intentional community whose roots date back to the years shortly before World War I, when Dagania A, the first cooperative Jewish settlement in Palestine, was established. In subsequent decades, through the period of British authority over the region, the number of kibbutzim grew. By 1948, the year of Israeli statehood, the kibbutz represented the normal living arrangement of over 50,000 people. Following national independence, kibbutz membership continued to increase at a reduced rate until the mid-1950s, when it stabilized at a population of some 80,000 distributed among approximately 230 settlements.1
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References and Notes
Kanovsky, E. The economy of the Israeli kibbutz. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.: 1966, pp. 19–21, 147.
Orni, E., and Efrat, E., Geography of Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1966, pp. 3–126.
Infield, H., Cooperative living in Palestine. London: Kegan Paul, 1946, pp. 20–22. See also: Cohen, R. The kibbutz settlement: Principals and processes. Israel: Hakibbutz Hameuchad, 1972; Gorkin, M. Border kibbutz. New York: Hart, 1971, p. 201; Rokach, A. Land and water. In J. Ben-David (Ed.), Agricultural planning and village community in Israel. Belgium: UNESCO, 1964.
For a brief description of the development of kibbutz and Israeli agriculture, see: Rokach, A. The development of agriculture in Palestine and Israel. In J. Ben-David, op. cit., pp. 21–30.
Orni and Efrat, op. cit., p. 232.
Ibid., pp. 232–233. See also: Spiro, M. Venture in utopia. New York: Schocken Books, 1956 (hereafter Venture), pp. 64–65.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 39–50. See also: Bettelheim, B. Children of the Dream. London: Collier-MacMillan Ltd., 1969, pp. 20–22; Eisenstadt, S. N. Israeli society. New York: Basic Books, 1967, p. 238; Talmon, Y. Family and community in the kibbutz. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972, pp. 3–4.
Kanovsky, op. cit., pp. 17–20.
Orni and Efrat, op. cit., pp. 171–183; Eisenstadt, op. cit., pp. 7–33; Stern, B. The kibbutz that was. Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1965, pp. 4–22.
Curtis, M. Utopia and the kibbutz. In M. Curtis and M. S. Chertoff, Israel: Social structure and change. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1973, p. 108. For a broader discussion of the changing characteristics of immigrants to Israel following independence, see: Matras, J. Social change in Israel. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1965, pp. 53–85.
Kanovsky, op. cit., p. 61; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 60–63, 78, 108; Talmon, op. cit., pp. 2–6, 10, 118–119, 166–180.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., p. 28; Leon, D. The kibbutz: A new way of life. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1969, pp. 70–71. For an example of competition between productive branches in the kibbutz over relative profitability, see: Kanovsky, op. cit., pp. 46–47.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 221–235; Talmon, op. cit., pp. 18–20. For an analysis of the causes of women’s discontents in the kibbutz, see: Keller, S. The family in the kibbutz: What lessons for us. In Curtis and Chertoff, op. cit., pp. 115–144.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 94–96; Stern, op. cit., pp. 137–149.
Talmon, op. cit., p. 186–187.
Ibid., p. 199. Also see: pp. 196–200.
Ibid., pp. 188-189; Leon, op. cit., p. 72.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., p. 93.
Gorkin, op. cit., pp. 229–230. See also: Spiro, op. cit., pp. 198–200.
Bettleheim, op. cit., pp. 20–22; Cohen, op. cit., pp. 288–289; Infield, op. cit., pp. 12–15; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 19–23, 43–48.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 71–74; Leon, op. cit., pp. 37–39, 47–51; Kanovsky, op. cit., pp. 52–64; Cohen, op. cit., pp. 69–231.
Kanovsky, op. cit., pp. 31–41, 74–125; Cohen, op. cit., pp. 20–57; Leon, op. cit., pp. 34–35, 56–62.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 78–83; Kanovsky, op. cit., pp. 24–25. Also see: Ben-David, J. The kibbutz and the moshav. Inj. Ben-David (Ed.), op. cit., pp. 54–55.
Bettelheim, op. cit., p. 224; Talmon, op. cit., p. 119. For further discussion on the motivations of kibbutz workers, see: Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 82–90; Leon, op. cit., pp. 77–78.
Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 163–164. Also see: Talmon, op. cit., pp. 118–124; Kanovsky, op. cit., pp. 37–41.
Talmon, op. cit., pp. 45–46; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 77–78; Cohen, op. cit., p. 306.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 19–23, 106–107; Leon, op. cit., pp. 32–33; Talmon, op. cit., p. 208.
Talmon, op. cit., pp. 206–213. For additional discussion of collective consumption on the kibbutz, see: Leon, op. cit., pp. 79–91.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 110–124; Infield, op. cit., pp. 19–20.
Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 18–19; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 126–127.
For statistics cited, see: Talmon, op. cit., p. 85 (Table 13). Discussions of parent-child relationships in kibbutzim can be found in Talmon, op. cit., pp. 84–86; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 124–130; Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 70, 73–78, 109–116, 131–135.
Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 100–109, 187; Leon, op. cit., pp. 104–106; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 121–122, 275–277.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 128–135, 139, 277, 280–283; Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 159–165, 208, 223–226, 242, 335–336; Leon, op. cit., pp. 97–104.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 133–136; Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 85–92, 115–116, 127–130; Leon, op. cit., pp. 110–111. Two studies that focus on childhood in the kibbutz are: Rabin, A. I. Growing up in the kibbutz. New York: Springer, 1965; Spiro, M. Children of the kibbutz. New York: Schocken Books, 1965 (hereafter Children).
Diamond, cited in Bettelheim, op. cit., p. 227. See also Talmon, op. cit., pp. 80–81; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., p. 69. For photographs of a kibbutz dining-hall, see: Leon, op. cit., Figs. 8 and 9.
Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 26, 27, 73, 151–153; Talmon, op. cit., pp. 74–76, 80–82; Gorkin, op. cit., pp. 60–61; Stern, op. cit., pp. 64–66. For a pessimistic view of the prospects of the communal dining-hall, see: Stern, op. cit., 140–142.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 91–92, 211, 268–269; Gorkin, op. cit., 48–51, 220–232; Leon, op. cit., pp. 64–65.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 10–38, 258–260; Stern, op. cit., pp. 69–83.
Talmon, bp. cit., pp. 203–243; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 236–239, 249–250, 263–268, 278–280; Leon, op. cit., pp. 143–144.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., 29-32, 53-56; Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 85–92, 160, 250–251.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 30–31, 103–107, 204; Gorkin, op. cit., pp. 134, 177, 186. For a discussion of the psychological cost of enforcing cohesion in the community, see: Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 248–251, 259–261.
Spiro, Children, op. cit., pp. 347–349; Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 237–239. For a structural—functional explanation of kibbutz marriage patterns, see: Talmon, op. cit., pp. 139–165.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 219–220, 255–256, 279, 289–290. See: Talmon, op. cit., pp. 166–181.
Talmon, op. cit., pp. 37–39; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 221–35. See also Keller, S. The family in the kibbutz: What lessons for us. In Curtis and Chertoff, op. cit., pp. 115–144; Leon, op. cit., pp. 128–36.
Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 174–175, 248.
Infield, op. cit., pp. 19–20; Talmon, op. cit., pp. 2–3.
Talmon, op. cit., pp. 43–44; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 204–205; Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 216–220; Leon, op. cit., pp. 84–88.
Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 211–213, 232–235. See also: pp. 125–131, 181–184, 231; Leon, op. cit., pp. 97–104.
Spiro, Venture, op. cit., pp. 77, 103.
Ibid., pp. 207–208.
Ibid., pp. 94–104; Bettelheim, op. cit., pp. 50, 229–230; Leon, op. cit., pp. 75–77.
Talmon, op. cit., pp. 42–48; Spiro, Venture, op. cit., p. 287.
Talmon, op. cit., pp. 176–180.
See: Rosner, M. Worker participation in decision-making in kibbutz industry. In Curtis and Chertoff, op. cit., pp. 145–158; Leviatan, U. The industrial process in Israeli kibbutzim: Problems and solutions. In Curtis and Chertoff, op. cit., pp. 159–172. For additional data on kibbutz industry, see: Stern, op. cit., pp. 35–51.
For discussions of the problem of hired labor on the kibbutz, see: Kanovsky, op. cit., pp. 64–67; Stern, op. cit., pp. 104–117.
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Moos, R., Brownstein, R. (1977). The Israeli Kibbutzim. In: Environment and Utopia. The Plenum Social Ecology Series. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-8597-8_4
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