Skip to main content

Biological Variables in Psychopathology

A Psychobiological Perspective

  • Chapter

Abstract

The purpose of this chapter is to call attention to the importance of biological influences in theories of psychopathology. The author’s interest in writing such a chapter stems, in part, from his frustration and disappointment in reading numerous papers by behaviorally oriented clinical psychologists. Although the wave of behaviorism that has swept over clinical psychology in the last two decades has had a creditable effect on the rigor with which behavioral issues are addressed, all too often behaviorally oriented investigators adopt a narrow environmental view, giving the impression of being completely unaware of the need to expand their theoretical position. It is hoped, therefore, that this chapter will serve to alert the large audience for which this book is intended to the need to adopt a psychobiological approach to psychopathology.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abrams, R., & Taylor, M. First-rank symptoms, severity of illness and treatment response in schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 1973, 14, 353–355.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akiskal, H. S. A biobehavioral approach to depression. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akiskal, H. S., & McKinney, W. T., Jr. Depressive disorders: Toward a unified hypothesis. Science, 1973, 182, 20–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akiskal, H. S., & McKinney, W. T., Jr. Overview of recent research in depression: Integration of 10 conceptual models into a comprehensive clinical frame. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1975, 32, 285–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, M. G. Twin studies of affective illness. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1976, 33, 1476–1478.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aronfreed, J. Aversive control of socialization. In W. J. Arnold (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astrachan, B., Harrow, M., Adler, D., Brauer, L., Schwartz, A., Schwartz, C., & Tucker, G. A checklist for the diagnosis of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1972, 121, 529–539.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baldessarini, R. J. Amine metabolism in relation to affective disorders. In F. F. Flach & S. Draghi (Eds.), The nature and treatment of depression. New York: Wiley, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldessarini, R. J. An overview of the basis for amine hypotheses in affective illness. In J. Mendels (Ed.), Psychobiology of depression. New York: Spectrum, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckmann, H., & Goodwin, F. K. Antidepressant response to tricyclics and urinary MHPG in unipolar patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1975, 32, 17–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, P. A., & Barchas, J. D. Biochemical hypotheses of affective disorders. In J. D. Barchas, P. A. Berger, R. D. Ciaranello, & G. R. Elliott (Eds.), Psychopharmacology: From theory to practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birley, J. L. T., & Brown, G. W. Crisis and life changes preceding the onset or relapse of acute schizophrenia: Clinical aspects. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1970, 116, 327–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bland, R. C., & Orn, H. Schizophrenia: Diagnostic criteria and outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1979, 134, 34–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bleuler, M. The long-term course of the schizophrenic psychoses. Psychological Medicine, 1974, 4, 244–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, G. W., & Birley, J. L. T. Crises and life changes and the onset of schizophrenia. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 1968, 9, 203–214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, G. W., Birley, J. L. T., & Wing, J. K. Influence of family life on the course of schizophrenic disorders: A replication. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1972, 121 241–258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, G. A., & Goodwin, F. K. The stages of mania. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1973, 28, 221–228.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carney, M. W. P., & Sheffield, B. F. Depression and the Newcastle scales—their relationship to Hamilton’s scale. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1972, 121, 35–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carney, M. W. P., & Sheffield, B. F. The effects of pulse ECT in neurotic and endogenous depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1974, 125, 91–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, B. J. Review of clinical research strategies in affective illness. In J. Mendels (Ed.), Psychobiology of depression. New York: Spectrum, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, B. J. Psychiatric disorders and steroids. In E. Usdin, D. A. Hamburg, & J. D. Barchas (Eds.), Neural regulators and psychiatric disorders. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, B. J. Neuroendocrine function and psychiatric disorders. In M. A. Lipton, A. DiMascio, & K. F. Killam (Eds.), Psychopharmacology: A generation of progress. New York: Raven Press, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, B. J., & Mendels, J. Neuroendocrine regulation in depression. In E. Sachar (Ed.), Hormones, behavior, and psychopathology. New York: Raven Press, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, B. J., Curtis, G., Mendels, J., & Sugerman, A. Neuroendocrine regulation in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1976, 33, 1039–1057.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, J. F., Bennett, I. F., Lindley, C. J., Hollister, L. E., Gordon, M. H., & Springer, N. N. Drug therapy in schizophrenia: A controlled study of the relative effectiveness of chlorpromazine, promazine, phenobarbital, and placebo. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1960, 2, 210–220.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, J. O. Phenothiazine treatment in acute schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1964, 10, 246–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J. R., Bloom, F. E., & Roth, R. H. The biochemical basis of neuropharmacology ( 3rd ed. ). New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crow, T. Catecholamine-containing neurones and electrical self stimulation: II. A theoretical interpretation and some psychiatric implications. Psychological Medicine, 1973, 3, 66–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crow, T., & Deakin, J. F. W. Monoamines and the psychoses. In K. Brown & S. J. Cooper (Eds.), Chemical influences on behaviour. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. M. The efficacy of the tranquilizing and antidepressant drugs. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1965, 13, 552–572.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. M. Dopamine theory of schizophrenia: A two-factor theory. In L. C. Wynne, R. L. Cromwell, & S. Matthysse (Eds.), The nature of schizophrenia. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davison, K., & Bagley, C. R. Schizophrenia-like psychoses associated with organic disorders of the central nervous system: A review of the literature. British Journal of Psychiatry, Special Publication #4 (Current problems in neuropsychiatry), 1969, 113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dennenberg, V. H. Experimental programming of life histories in the rat. In A. Ambrose (Ed.), Stimulation in early infancy. New York: Academic Press, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dennenberg, V. H., & Zarrow, M. X. Effects of handling in infancy upon adult behavior and adrenocortical activity: Suggestions for a neuroendocrine mechanism. In D. N. Walcher & D. L. Peters (Eds.), The development of self-regulatory mechanisms. New York: Academic Press, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Depue, R. A. An activity-withdrawal distinction in schizophrenia: Behavioral, clinical, brain damage, and neurophysiological correlates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1976, 85, 174–185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Depue, R. A., & Kleiman, R. M. Free cortisol as a peripheral index of central vulnerability to major forms of polar depressive disorders: Examining stress-biology interactions in subsyndromal high-risk persons. In R. A. Depue (Eds.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Depue, R. A., & Monroe, S. M. The unipolar-bipolar distinction in the depressive disorders. Psychological Bulletin, 1978, 85, 1001–1029.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Depue, R. A., & Monroe, S. M. The unipolar-bipolar distinction in the depressive disorders: Implications for stress-onset interaction. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, A., & Pearce, J. M. Inhibitory interactions between appetitive and aversive stimuli. Psychological Bulletin, 1977, 84, 690–711.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eastman, C. Behavioral formulations of depression. Psychological Review, 1976, 83, 277–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feighner, J. P., Robins, E., Guze, S. B., Woodruff, R. A., Winokur, G., & Munoz, R. Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1972, 26, 57–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowles, D. C. The three-arousal model: Implications of Gray’s two-factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity, and psychopathy. Psychophysiology, 1980, 17, 87–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowles, D. C. Heart rate as an index of anxiety: Failure of a hypothesis. In J. Cacioppo & R. Petty (Eds.), Focus on cardiovascular psychophysiology. New York: Guilford Press, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fowles, D. C., & Gersh, F. Neurotic depression: I. The endogenous-neurotic distinction. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gersh, F., & Fowles, D. C. Neurotic depression: The concept of anxious depression. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, F., & Bunney, W. E., Jr. Depression following reserpine, a reevaluation. Seminars in Psychiatry, 1971, 3, 435–448.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, F., & Post, R. M. Studies of amine metabolites in affective illness and in schizophrenia: A comparative analysis. In D. X. Freedman (Ed.), Biology of the major psychoses: A comparative analysis (Vol, 54), Association for research in nervous and mental disorders. New York: Raven Press, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorenstein, E. E., & Newman, J. P. Disinhibitory psychopathology: A new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review, 1980, 87, 301–315.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottesman, I. I. Schizophrenia and genetics: Where are we? Are you sure? In L. C. Wynne, R. L. Cromwell, & S. Matthysse (Eds.), The nature of schizophrenia. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottesman, I. I., & Shields, J. Schizophrenia in twins: Sixteen years consecutive admissions to a psychiatric clinic. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1966, 112, 809–818.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottesman, I. I., & Shields, J. Schizophrenia and genetics: A twin study vantage point. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottesman, I. I., & Shields, J. A critical review of recent adoption, twin, and family studies of schizophrenia: Behavioral genetics perspectives. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1976, 2, 360–397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, D. T. Psychosomatic medicine. In N. S. Greenfield & R. A. Sternbach (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. Sodium amobarbital, the hippocampal theta rhythm and the partial reinforcement extinction effect. Psychological Review, 1970, 77, 465–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. Causal theories of personality and how to test them. In J. R. Royce (Eds.), Multivariate analysis and psychological theory. New York: Academic Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. Elements of a two-process theory of learning. New York: Academic Press, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. The behavioural inhibition system: A possible substrate for anxiety. In M. P. Feldman & A. M. Broadhurst (Eds.), Theoretical and experimental bases of behaviour modification. New York: Wiley, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. The neuropsychology of anxiety. In I. G. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety, Vol. 3. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. Drug effects on fear and frustration: Possible limbic site of action of minor tranquilizers. In L. L. Iversen, S. D. Iversen, & S. H. Snyder (Eds.), Handbook of psychopharmacology, Vol. 8. Drugs, neurotransmitters, and behavior. New York: Plenum Press, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. The neuropsychology of anxiety. British Journal of Psychology, 1978, 69, 417–434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. A neuropsychological theory of anxiety. In C. E. Izard (Ed.), Emotions in personality and psychopathology. New York: Plenum Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A., Feldon, J., Rawlins, J. N., Owen, S., & McNaughton, N. In Ciba Foundation Symposium 58 (new series), Functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Excerpta Medica/NorthHolland, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, M., & White, J. M. Clinical syndromes in depressive states. Journal of Mental Science, 1959, 105, 985–998.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D. Psychopathy: Theory and research. New York: Wiley, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D. Electrodermal and cardiovascular correlates of psychopathy. In R. D. Hare & D. Schalling (Eds.), Psychopathic behaviour: Approaches to research. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D., & Cox, D. N. Clinical and empirical conceptions of psychopathy, and the selection of subjects for research. In R. D. Hare & D. Schalling (Eds.), Psychopathic behaviour: Approaches to research. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawk, A. B., Carpenter, W. T., & Strauss, S. Diagnostic criteria and five-tear outcome in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1975, 32, 343–347.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hobson, R. F. Prognostic factors in electric convulsive therapy. Jounal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 1953, 16, 275–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janowsky, D. S. El-Yousef, M. K., Davis, J. M., & Sekerke, M. J. Provocation of schizophrenic symptoms by intravenous administration of methylphenidate. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1973, 28, 185–191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone, E. C., Frith, C. D., Gold, A., & Stevens, M. The outcome of severe acute schizophrenic illnesses after one year. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1979, 134, 28–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, F., Maas, J. W., Dekirmenjian, H., & Sanchez, J. Diagnostic subgroup of affective disorders and their urinary excretion of catecholamine metabolites. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1975, 132, 1141–1148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kety, S. S., Rosenthal, D., Wender, P. H., Schulsinger, F., & Jacobsen, B. The biologic and adoptive families of adopted individuals who became schizophrenic: Prevelance of mental illness and other characteristics. In L. C. Wynne, R. L. Cromwell, & S. Matthysse (Eds.), The nature of schizophrenia. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinney, D. K., & Jacobsen, B. Environmental factors in schizophrenia: New adoption study evidence. In L. C. Wynne, R. L. Cromwell, & S. Matthysse (Eds.), The nature of schizophrenia. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, D. F. Endogenomorphic depression: A conceptual and terminological revision. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1974, 31, 447–454.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lader, M. H., & Wing, L. Physiological measures in agitated and retarded depressed patients. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 1969, 7, 89–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leff, J. P. Schizophrenia and sensitivity to the family en- vironment. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1976, 2, 566–574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leff, J. P., & Wing, J. K. Trial of maintenance therapy in schizophrenia. British Medical Journal, 1971, 3, 599–604.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Leff, M. J., Roatch, J. F., & Bunney, W. E., Jr. Environmental factors preceding the onset of severe depression. Psychiatry, 1970, 33, 293–311.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, S. The effects of infantile experience on adult behaviour. In A. J. Bachrach (Ed.), Experimental foundations of clinical psychology. New York: Basic Books, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lykken, D. T. A study of anxiety in the sociopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1957, 55, 6–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maas, J. W. Biogenic amines and depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1975, 32, 1357–1364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maas, J. W., Fawcett, J., & Dekirmenjian, H. Catecholamine metabolism, depressive illness and drug response. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1972, 26, 252–262.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maas, J. W., Dekirmenjian, H., & Jones, F. The identification of depressed patients who have a disorder of norepinephrine metabolism and/or disposition. In E. Usdin & S. Snyder (Eds.), Frontiers in catecholamine research. New York: Pergamon Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackintosh, N. J. The psychology of animal learning. New York: Academic Press, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehl, P. E. Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia. American Psychologist, 1962, 17, 827–838.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meehl, P. E., & Rosen, A. Antecedent probability and the efficiency of psychometric signs, patterns, or cutting scores. Psychological Bulletin, 1955, 52, 195–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendelewicz, J., & Rainer, J. D. Adoption study supporting genetic transmission in manic depressive illness. Lancet, 1977, 268, 327–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendels, J. Electroconvulsive therapy and depression: III. A method for prognosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1965, 111, 687–690.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendels, J. The prediction of response to electroconvulsive therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1967, 124, 153–159.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendels, J., & Frazer, A. Brain biogenic amine depletion and mood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1974, 30, 447–451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mowrer, O. H. On the dual nature of learning—A reinterpretation of “conditioning” and “problem solving.” Harvard Educational Review, 1947, 17, 102–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E. S. Classification of depressed patients: Cluster analysis derived grouping. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1971, 118, 275–288

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E. S. Correlates of a depressive typology. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1972, 27, 203–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E. S. Recent life events and clinical depression. In E. K. Gunderson & R. H. Rahe (Eds.), Life stress and illness. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E. S. Recent life events in the development of the depressive disorders. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Procci, W. R. Schizo-affective psychoses: Fact or fiction? A survey of the literature. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1976, 33, 1167–1178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabkin, J. G. Stressful life events and schizophrenia: A review of the research literature. Psychological Bulletin, 1980, 87, 408–425.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. M. Prognostic factors in the electroshock treatment of depressive states: I. Clinical features from history and examination. Journal of Mental Science, 1959, 105, 693–702.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, E., & Guze, S. Classification of affective disorders: The primary-secondary, the endogenous-reactive, and the neurotic-psychotic dichotomies. In T. A. Williams, M. M. Katz, & J. A. Shield (Eds.), Recent advances in the psychobiology of the depressive illnesses. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, D. Genetic theory and abnormal behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, D., & Kety, S. S. (Eds.), The transmission of schizophrenia. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, P. A. “Infantile stimulation” in rodents: A consideration of possible mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 1971, 75, 192–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schildkraut, J. J. Norepinephrine metabolites as biochemical criteria for classifying depressive disorders and predicting responses to treatment: Preliminary findings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1973, 130, 695–699.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schildkraut, J. J. Biogenic amines and affective disorders. Annual Review of Medicine, 1974, 25, 333–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schildkraut, J. J. Catecholamine metabolism and affective disorder. In E. Usdin & S. Snyder (Eds.), Frontiers in catecholamine research. New York: Pergamon Press, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schildkraut, J. J. Current status of the catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders. In M. A. Lipton, A. DiMascio, & K. F. Killam (Eds.), Psychopharmacology: A generation of progress. New York: Raven Press, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schildkraut, J. J., Keller, B. A., Papousek, M., & Hartmann, E. MHPG excretion in depression disorders: Relation to clinical subtypes and desynchronized sleep. Science, 1973, 181, 762–764.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schildkraut, J. J., Orsulak, P. J., LaBrie, R. A., Schatzberg, A. F., Gudeman, J. E., Cole, J. O., & Rohde, W. A. Toward a biochemical classification of depressive disorders: II. Application of multivariate discriminant analysis to data on urinary catecholamines and metabolites. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1978, 35, 1436 1439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schildkraut, J. J., Orsulak, P. J., Schatzberg, A. F., Gudeman, J. E., Cole, J. O., Rohde, W. A., & LaBrie, R. A. Toward a biochemical classification of depressive disorders: I. Differences in urinary excretion of MHPG and other catecholamine metabolites in clinically defined subtypes of depressions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1978, 35, 1427–1433.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, S. H., Banerjee, S. P., Yamamuro, H. I., & Greenberg, D. Drugs, neurotransmitters, and schizophrenia. Science, 1974, 184, 1243–1253.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, S. M. Dopamine and schizophrenia. In L. C. Wynne, R. L. Cromwell, & S. Matthysse (Eds.), The nature of schizophrenia. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, R. L. The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation; The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. American Psychologist, 1980, 35, 691–712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, R. L., & Corbit, J. D. An opponent-process theory of motivation: I. Temporal dynamics of affect. Psychological Review, 1974, 81, 119–145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J., & Robins, E. Clinical criteria for psychiatric diagnosis and the DSM-III. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1975, 132, 1187–1192.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, L. Chemistry of reward and punishment. In D. Efron (Ed.), Psychopharmacology: A review of progress, 1957–1967. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, J., & Carpenter, W. T. Prediction of outcome in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1977, 34, 159–163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, J., & Gift, T. E. Choosing an approach for diagnosing schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1977, 34, 1248–1253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeney, D. R., & Maas, J. W. Stress and noradrenergic function in depression. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trasler, G. Relations between psychopathy and persistent criminality—Methodological and theoretical issues. In R. D. Hare & D. Schalling (Eds.), Psychopathic behaviour: Approaches to research. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uphouse, L. Reevaluation of mechanisms that mediate brain differences between enriched and impoverished animals. Psychological Bulletin, 1980, 88, 215–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillant, G. An historical review of the remitting schizophrenias. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 1965, 48–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, C., & Leff, J. P. The influence of family and social factors on the course of psychiatric illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1976, 129, 125–137.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venables, P. H. A short scale for rating “activity-withdrawal” in schizophrenics. Journal of Mental Science, 1957, 103, 197–199.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venables, P. H. The effect of auditory and visual stimuli on the skin potential response of schizophrenics. Brain, 1960, 83, 77–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venables, P. H. Selectivity of attention, withdrawal, and cortical activation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1963, 9, 74–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venables, P. H. The relation of two flash and two click threshold to withdrawal in paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenics. British Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology, 1967, 6, 60–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venables, P. H., & Wing, J. K. Level of arousal and the subclassification of schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1962, 7, 114–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, J. M., Glazer, H. I., Pohorecky, L. A., Bailey, W. H., & Schneider, L. H. Coping behavior and stress-induced behavioral depression: Studies of the role of brain catecholamines. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of depressive disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, A., Croughan, J. L., & Robins, E. The group of schizoaffective and related psychoses—critique, record, follow-up, and family studies: I. A persistent enigma. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1974, 31, 628–631.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, A., Marten, S., Wochnick, E., Davis, M. A., Fishman, R., & Clayton, P. J. Psychiatric disorders among professional women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1979, 36, 169–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wing, J. K. The measurement of behaviour in chronic schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1960, 35, 245–254.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wing, J. K. A simple and reliable subclassification of chronic schizophrenia. Journal of Mental Science, 1961, 107, 862–875.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wing, J. K. Social influences on the course of schizophrenia. In L. C. Wynne, R. L. Cromwell, & S. Matthysse, (Eds.), The nature of schizophrenia. New York: Wiley, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wing, J. K., & Brown, G. W. Institutionalism and schizophrenia. London: Cambridge University Press, 1970.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Winokur, G. The types of affective disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1973, 156, 82–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winokur, G., Cadoret, R., Dorzab, J., & Baker, M. Depressive disease: A genetic study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1971, 24, 135–144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winokur, G., Cadoret, R., Baker, M., & Dorzab, J. Depression spectrum disease vs. pure depressive disease: Some further data. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1975, 127, 75–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wise, C., Berger, B., & Stein, L. Evidence of alpha-noradrenergic reward receptors and serotonergic punishment receptors in the rat brain. Biological Psychiatry, 1973, 6, 3–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodruff, R. A., Jr., Guze, S. B., & Clayton, P. J. Anxiety neurosis among psychiatric outpatients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 1972, 13, 165–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zubin, J., & Spring, B. Vulnerability—A new view of schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1977, 86, 103–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1984 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Fowles, D.C. (1984). Biological Variables in Psychopathology. In: Adams, H.E., Sutker, P.B. (eds) Comprehensive Handbook of Psychopathology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6681-6_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6681-6_4

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4615-6683-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-6681-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics