Abstract
The earlier diagnosis of prostate cancer has resulted in fewer men initially presenting with metastatic disease. In addition, the combination of more accurate pretreatment staging models with improved local treatment modalities has increased the number of men cured of prostate cancer. The management of metastatic prostate cancer relies on a variety of factors, including accurate diagnosis, formal staging, and appropriate treatment selection. Traditionally, metastatic disease was suspected because of symptoms and elevated serum phosphatase, and subsequently confirmed by a positive radionuclide bone scan. Newer concepts have emerged in defining prostate cancer metastases, including the use of prostate-specific antigen kinetics, imaging with a radiolabeled antibody to prostate-specific membrane antigen, and molecular detection of circulating prostate cancer cells.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Huggins C, Hodges CV: Studies on prostate cancer: L The effect of castration of estrogen and of androgen injection on serum phosphatases in metastatic carcinoma of the prostate. Cancer Res 1941, 1: 293–297.
Veteran’s Administration Cooperative Urological Research Group: Carcinoma of the prostate (treatment comparisons). J Urol 1997, 98: 516–522.
Auclair C, Kelly PA, Coy DH, et al.: Potent inhibitory activity of [D-Leu-6, desGly-NH21 LHRH ethylarnide on LH/hCG and prolactin testicular receptor levels in the rat. Endocrinology 1977, 101:1890–1893.
Labrie F, Dupont A, Belanger A, et al.: New approach in the treatment of prostate cancer: complete instead of partial withdrawal of androgens. Prostate 1983, 4:579–594.
Schmitt B, Wilt TJ, Schellhammer PF, et al.: Combined androgen blockade with nonsteroidal antiandrogens for advanced prostate cancer: a systematic review. Urology2001, 57: 727–732.
Brufsky A, Fontaine R, Berlane K, et al.: Finasteride and flutamide as potency sparing androgen-ablative therapy for advanced adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Urology 1997, 49:913–920.
Higano CS: Intermittent androgen suppression with leuprolide and flutamide for prostate cancer: a pilot study. Urology 1996, 48: 800–804.
The Medical Research Council Prostate Cancer Working Party Investigators Group: Immediate versus deferred treatment for advanced prostatic cancer: initial results of the Medical Research Council Trial. BrJ Urol 1997, 79: 235–246.
Messing EM, Manola J, Sarosdy M, et al.: Immediate hormonal therapy compared with observation after radical prostatectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy in men with node-positive prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 1999, 341:1781.
Franks LM: The spread of prostate carcinoma. J Pathol 1956, 72: 603–611.
Lee CT, Oesterling JE: Using prostate-specific antigen to eliminate the staging radionuclide bone scan. Urol Clin North Am 1997, 24: 389–394.
Terris MK, Klonecke AS, McDougall IR, Stamey TA: Utilization of bone scans in conjunction with prostate specific antigen levels in the surveillance for recurrence of adenocarcinoma after radical prostatectomy. J Nucl Med 1991, 32: 1713–1718.
Cher ML, Bianco FJ Jr, Lam JS, etal.: Limited role of radionuclide bone scintigraphy in patients with prostate specific antigen elevations after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1998, 160: 1387–1391.
Manyak M: Advances in imaging prostate cancer. Advances in Prostate Cancer 1997, 1: 5–7.
Kahn D, Williams RD, Manyak MJ, etal.: 111-Indium-capromab pendetide in the evaluation of patients with residual or recurrent prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1998, 159: 2041–2047.
Maguire RT: 111-In Capromab pendetide (ProstaScint) for presurgical staging of patients with prostate cancer. J Nucl Med 1995, 29:108–113.
Hoh CK, Seltzer MR, Franklin J, et al.: Positron emission tomography in urologic oncology. J Urol 1998, 159: 347–356.
Moreno JG, Croce CM, Fischer R, et al.: Detection of hematogenous micrometastases in patients with prostate cancer. Cancer Res 1992, 52: 6110–6112.
Deguchi T, Doi T, Ehara H, et al.: Detection of micrometastatic prostate cancer cells in lymph nodes by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Cancer Res 1993, 53: 5350–5354.
Wood DP, Jr, Beaman A, Banerjee M, et al.: Effect of neoadjuvant deprivation on circulating prostate cells in the bone marrow of men undergoing radical prostatectomy. Clin Cancer Res 1998, 4: 2119–2123.
Chang C, Kokontis J, Liao S: Molecular cloning of the human and rat complementary DNA encoding androgen receptors. Science 1988, 240: 324–326.
Beato M: Gene regulation by steroid hormones. Cell 1989, 56: 335–344.
Onate S, Tsai S, Tsai M, et al.: Sequence and characterization of a coactivator for the steroid hormone receptor superfamily. Science 1995, 270: 1354–1357.
Sharifi R, Knoll LD, Smith J, Kramolowsky E: Leuprolide acetate (30 mg depot every 4 months) in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Urology 1998, 51: 271–276.
Shupnik MA, Schreihofer DA: Molecular aspects of steroid hormone action in the male reproductive axis. J Androl1997, 18:341–344.
Kaisary AV: Current clinical studies with a new nonsteroidal antiandrogen, casodex. Prostate 1994, 5 (suppl): 27–33.
Bamberger MH, Lowe FC: Ketoconazole in initial management and treatment of metastatic prostate cancer to spine. Urology 1988, 32: 301–303.
Schröder FH: Endocrine treatment of prostate cancer: recent developments and the future. Part I: maximal androgen blockage, early vs. delayed endocrine treatment and side-effects. BJU Int 1999, 83: 161–170.
Sato N, Gleave ME, Bruchovsky N, et al.: Intermittent androgen suppression delays progression to androgen independent regulation of prostate specific antigen gene in the LNCaP prostate tumor model. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1996, 58: 139–146.
Oliver RT: Intermittent androgen deprivation after PSA complete response as a strategy to reduce induction of hormone resistant prostate cancer. Urology 1997, 49: 79–82.
Homma T, Kaneko M, Kondo Y, et al.: Inhibition of rat prostate carcinogenesis by a 5alpha-reductase inhibitor, FK143. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997, 89: 803–807.
Stricker HJ: Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone antagonists in prostate cancer. Urology 2001, 58 (suppl): 24–27.
Crawford ED, Eisenberger MA, McLeod DG, etal.: A controlled trial of leuprolide with and without flutamide in prostatic carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1989, 321: 419–424.
Eisenberger MA, Blumenstein BA, Crawford ED, et al.: Bilateral orchiectomy with or without flutamide for metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 1998, 339:1036–1042.
Fleshner NE, Fair WR: Anti-androgenic effects of combination-finasteride plus flutamide in patients with prostatic carcinoma. BrJ Urol 1996, 78: 907–910.
Dhanasekaran SM, MarretteTR, Ghosh D, etal.: Delineation of prognostic biomarkers in prostate cancer. Nature 2001, 412: 822–826.
Walsh PC, DeWeeseTL, Eisenberger MA: A structured debate: immediate versus deferred androgen suppression in prostate cancer: evidence for deferred treatment. J Urol 2001, 166: 508–516.
Dawson NA: Apples and oranges: building a consensus for standardized eligibility criteria and end points in prostate cancer clinical trials. J Clin Oncol 1998, 16: 3398–3405.
Newling DW, Denis L, Vermeylen K, for the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer-Genitourinary Group: Orchiectomy versus goserelin and flutamide in the treatment of newly diagnosed metastatic prostate cancer. Cancer 1993, 72: 3793–3798.
Scher HI, Kelly WK: The flutamide withdrawal syndrome: its impact on clinical trials in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 1993, 11: 1566–1572.
Figg WD, Sartor O, Cooper MR, et al.: Prostate specific antigen decline following the discontinuation of flutamide in patients with stage D2 prostate cancer. Am J Med 1995, 98:412–414.
Bissada NK, Kaczmarek AT: Complete remission of hormone refractory adenocarcinoma of the prostate in response to withdrawal of diethylstilbestrol. J Urol 1995, 153: 1944–1945.
Dawson NA, McLeod DG: Dramatic prostate specific antigen decrease in response to discontinuation of megestrol acetate in advanced prostate cancer: expansion of the antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome.] Urol 1995, 153: 1946–1947.
Nishiyama T, Terunuma M: Prostate specific antigen and prostate acid phosphatase declines after estramustine phosphate withdrawal: a case report. Intl Urol 1994, 1: 355–356.
Sartor O: Prostate-specific antigen changes before and after administration of an angiogenesis inhibitor. Oncology Reports 1995, 2: 1101–1102.
Schellhammer PF, Venner P, Haas GP, et al.: Prostate specific antigen decreases after withdrawal of antiandrogen therapy with bicalutamide or flutamide in patients receiving combined androgen blockade. J Urol 1997, 157: 1731–1735.
Taplin ME, Bubley GJ, Shuster TD, et al.: Androgen receptor mutations in metastatic androgen independent prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 1995, 332: 1393–1398.
Veldscholte J, Ris-Stalpers C, Kuipper GGJM, et al.: A mutation in the ligand binding domain of the androgen receptor of human LNCaP cells affects steroid binding characteristics and response to antiandrogens. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1990, 173:534–540.
Fowler JE, Jr.: Endocrine therapy for localized prostate cancer. Urol Ann 1996, 10: 57–77.
Tannock IF, Osoba D, Stockier MR, et al.: Chemotherapy with mitoxantrone plus prednisone or prednisone alone for symptomatic hormone-resistant prostate cancer: a Canadian randomized trial with palliative end points. J Clin Oncol 1996, 14: 1756–1764.
Small EJ, Baron AD, Fippin L, Apodaca D: Ketoconazole retains activity in advanced prostate cancer patients with progression despite flutamide withdrawal. J Urol 1997, 157: 1204–1207.
Osbom JL, Smith DC, Trump DL: Megestrol acetate in the treatment of hormone refractory prostate cancer. Am J Clin Oncol 1997, 20: 308–310.
Smith DC, Redman BG, Flaherty LE, et al.: A phase II trial of oral diethylstilbestrol as a second line hormonal agent in patients with advanced prostate cancer. Urology 1998, 52: 257–260.
Walzer Y, Oswalt J, Soloway MS: Estramustine phosphate-hormone, chemotherapeutic agent, or both? Urology 1984, 24: 53–58.
Pinski J, Parikh A, Bova GS, Isaacs JT: Therapeutic implications of enhanced G(0)/G(1) checkpoint control induced by coculture of prostate cancer cells with osteoblasts. Cancer Res 2001, 61: 6372–6376.
Nemeth JA, Yousif R, Herzog M, et al.: Matrix metalloproteinase activity, bone matrix turnover, and tumor cell proliferation in prostate cancer bone metastasis.J Nati Cancer Inst 2002, 94: 17–25.
Berruti A, Dogliotti L, Tucci M, etal.: Metabolic bone disease induced by prostate cancer: rationale for the use of bisphosphonates. J Urol 2001, 166: 2023–2031.
Chi KN, Gleave ME, Klasa R, et al.: A phase I dose-finding study of combined treatment with an antisense Bcl-2 oligonucleotide (Genasense) and mitoxantrone in patients with metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2001, 7: 3920–3927.
Rudes GH, Greenberg R, Krigel R, et al.: Phase II study of estramustine and vinblastine, two microtubule inhibitors, in hormone refractory prostate cancer.J Clin Oncol 1992, 10: 1754–1761.
Pienta KJ, Redman B, Hussain M, et al.: Phase II evaluation of oral estramustine and oral etoposide in hormone-refractory adenocarcinoma of the prostate. J Clin Onco11994, 12: 2005–2012.
Rudes GR, Nathan F, Khater C, et al.: Phase II trial of 96-hour paclitaxel plus oral estramustine phosphate in metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 1997, 15: 3156–3163.
Petrylak DP, Macarthur RB, O’Connor J, et al.: Phase I trial of docetaxel with estramustine in androgen-independent prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 1999, 17: 958–967.
Smith MR, Kaufman D, Oh W, et al.: Vinorelbine and estramustine in androgen-independent metastatic prostate cancer: a phase II study. Cancer 2000, 89: 1824–1828.
Small EJ, Bok R, Reese DM, et al.: Docetaxel, estramustine, plus trastuzumab in patients with metastatic androgen-independent prostate cancer. Semin Oncol 2001, 28: 71–76.
Folkman J, D’Amore PA: Blood vessel formation: what is its molecular basis? Cell 1996, 87: 1153–1155.
Ko YJ, Small EJ, Kabbinavar F, et al.: A multi-institutional phase II study of SU101, a platelet-derived growth factor receptor inhibitor, for patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2001, 7: 800–805.
Figg WD, Dahut W, Duray P, et al.: A randomized phase II trial of thalidomide, an angiogenesis inhibitor, in patients with androgen-independent prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2001, 7: 1888–1893.
Chambers AF, Matrisian LM: Changing views of the role of matrix metalloproteinases in metastasis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997, 89: 1260–1270.
Duffy MJ, McCarthy K: Matrix metalloproteinases in cancer: prognostic markers and targets for therapy. Int J Oncol 1998, 12: 1343–1348.
Brown PD: Clinical studies with matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors. APMIS 1999, 107: 174–180.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 Current Medicine, Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Meng, M.V. (2003). Management of Metastatic Prostate Cancer. In: Bruskewitz, R.C. (eds) Atlas of the Prostate. Current Medicine Group, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6505-5_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6505-5_15
Publisher Name: Current Medicine Group, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-4615-6507-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-6505-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive