Abstract
The agreement that social psychology has become cognitive seems to be unanimous. The present article inquires into the meaning of what has been called the Cognitive turn. Two central concepts of cognitive science, psychology, and social psychology are then analyzed historically and systematically. They are:
-
1.
Schema as the conceptual prototype for cognitive structures, introduced into psychology at the turn of the century.
-
2.
Inference as the construct for a cognitive process, which (as unconscious inference), was one of the first to be studied at the historical beginnings of psychological science, and which is still a favorite key term in cognitive theories and research.
With respect to both concepts the authors try to demonstrate how a historical attitude, prevailing in psychology, leads to the repeated loss of theoretical knowledge and a conceptual refinement, which had already been attained by former students of cognitive structures and processes. The neglect of conceptual clarification, resulting in the fuzziness and ambiguities of two key concepts of cognitive psychology, is presently enhanced by a process which is described as the cognitivization of (social) psychology. Reinforced by a “computerization” of the cognitive, due to a domineering information-processing model of the mind, the cognitization of psychology is criticized as a cognitive encapsulation, which tends to keep the historical and social reality of man outside psychological theorizing and research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abelson, R. P. The structure of belief systems. In R. Schank & K. M. Colby (Eds.), Computermodels of thought and language. San Francisco: Freeman, 1973.
Abelson, R. P. Concepts for representing mundane reality in plans. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitivie science. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Abelson, R. P. Script processing in attitude formation and decision making. In J. S. Carroll & J. W. Payne (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1976.
Abelson, R. P., & Reich, C. M. Implicational molecules: A method for extracting meaning from input sentences. In D. E. Walker & L. M. Norton (Eds.), Proceedings of theInternational Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, May 1969.
Allport, D. A. Conscious and unconscious cognition. A computational metaphor for the mechanism of attention and integration. In L. G. Nilson (Ed.), Perspectives on memoryresearch: Essays in honor of Uppsala University’s 500th Anniversary. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979.
Allport, G. Attitudes. In C. M. Murchison (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology. Worcester, Mass.: Clark University Press, 1935.
Allport, G. The historical background of modern social psychology. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968.
Anderson, J. R. Language, memory, and thought. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1976.
Anderson, J. R. Cognitive psychology and its implications. San Francisco: Freeman, 1980.
Anderson, J. R. Concepts, propositions and schemata: What are the cognitive units? In H. E. Howe & J. H. Flowers (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1980. Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1981, 121–162.
Anscombe, G. E. M. Intention. Oxford: Blackwell, 1976.
Asch, S. Social psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1952.
Baron, R. M. Contrasting approaches to social knowing: An ecological perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1980, 6, 591–600.
Baron, R. M., & Harvey, J. H. Contrasting perspectives in social knowing: An overview. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1980, 6, 502–506.
Bartlett, F. C. Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. London: Cambridge University Press, 1932.
Bartlett, F. C. Thinking. New York: Basic Books, 1958.
Bateson, G. Steps to an ecology of mind. New York: Ballantine Books, 1972.
Battig, W. F., & Montague, W. C. Category norms for verbal items in 56 categories: A replication and extension of the Connecticut category norms. Journal of Experimental Psychology Monograph, June 1969.
Begg, I., & Denny, J. P. Empirical reconciliation of atmosphere and conversion interpretation of syllogistic reasoning errors. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969, 81, 351–354.
Bern, D. Self-perception theory, In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6), New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Bergson, H. L’effort intellectuel (1902). In H. Bergson (Ed.), Mélanges. Paris: P.U.F., 1972.
Bobrow, D. G. Dimensions of representation. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Bobrow, D. G., & Norman, D. A. Some principles of memory schemata. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Boden, M. Artificial intelligence and natural man. New York: Basic Books, 1977.
Boer, S. E., & Lycan, W. G. Invited inferences and other unwelcome guests. Papers in Linguistics, 1973, 6, 483–505.
Bower, G. Cognitive psychology: An introduction. In K. S. Estes (Ed.), Handbook of learning and cognitive processes (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1975.
Bower, G. Experiments on story understanding and recall. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1976, 28, 511–534.
Bower, G. H., Black, J. B., & Turner, T. J. Scripts in memory for text. Cognitive Psychology, 1979, 11, 177–220.
Bransford, J. D. Human cognition. Belmont, Cal.: Wadsworth, 1979.
Bransford, J. D., Barclay, J. R., & Franks, J. J. Sentence memory: A constructive vs. interpretive approach. Cognitive Psychology. 1972, 3, 193–209.
Bransford, J. D., & McCarrell, N. S. A sketch of a cognitive approach to comprehension. In W. Weimer & D. S. Palermo (Eds.), Cognition and the symbolic processes. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1974.
Brewer, M. B. Ingroup bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 1979, 86, 307–324.
Brigham, J. C. Ethnic stereotypes. Psychological Bulletin, 1971, 76, 15–38.
Bruner, J. S. On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 1957, 64, 123–152(a).
Bruner, J. S. Going beyond the information given. In H. E. Gruber, K. R. Hammond, & R. Jessor (Eds.), Contemporary approaches to cognition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957. (b)
Bruner, J. S., Shapiro, D., & Tagiuri, R. The meaning of traits in isolation and in combination. In R. Tagiuri & L. Petrullo (Eds.), Person perception and interpersonal behavior. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1958.
Bruner, J. S., & Tagiuri, R. The perception of people. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2). Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954.
Cantor, N., & Mischel, W. Traits as prototypes. Effects on recognition memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 35, 38–48.
Cantor, N., & Mischel, W. Prototypes in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social pscyhology (Vol. 12). New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Carroll, J. S., & Payne, J. W. (Eds.). Cognition and social behavior. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1976.
Ceraso, J., & Provitera, A. Sources of error in syllogistic reasoning. Cognitive Psychology, 1971, 2, 400–410.
Charniak, E. Towards a model of children’s story comprehension (ATTR-266). Cambridge, Mass. : M.I.T. Press, 1972.
Charniak, E. Inference and knowledge II. In E. Charniak & Y. Wilks (Eds.), Computational semantics. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976.
Chomsky, N. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1965.
Cohen, L. E. An information processing approach to social perception: The influence of a stereotype upon what an observer remembered. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1976.
Colby, B. A partial grammar of Eskimo folktales. American Anthologies, 1973, 75, 645–662.
Collins, A. Why cognitive science? Cognitive Science, 1977, 1, 1–2.
Collins, A., Warnock, E. H., Aiello, N., & Miller, M. L. Reasoning from incomplete knowledge. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Cook, M. Perceiving others. London: Methuen, 1979.
Corum, C. R., & Brown, B. R. Variability judgments in a three-category pattern classification task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1973, 76, 879–886.
Crothers, L. J. Inference and coherence. Discourse Processes, 1978, 1, 51–71.
D’Andrade, R. G. Trait psychology and componential analysis. American Anthropologist, 1965, 67, 215–228.
de Groot, A. D. Het deke van den schaker, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1946.
de Groot, A. D. Thought and choice in chess. Den Haag: Mouton, 1965.
Duncker, K. Phenomenology and epistemology of consciousness of objects. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 1947, 7, 505–542.
Erickson, J. R. A set analysis theory of behavior in formal syllogistic reasoning tasks. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Theories in cognitive psychology: The Loyola Symposium. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1974.
Erickson, J. R. Research on syllogistic reasoning. In R. Revlin & R. E. Mayer (Eds.), Human reasoning. Washington, D.C.: Winston, 1978.
Fillmore, C. J. The case for case. In E. Bach & R. T. Harms (Eds.), Universals in linguistic theory. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968.
Fillmore, C. J. An alternative to checklist theories of meaning. Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistic Society. Berkley: Institute of Human Learning, University of California, 1975.
Frake, C. O. Plying frames can be dangerous: Some reflections on methodology in cognitive anthropology. The Quarterly Newsletter of the Institute for Comparative Human Development. The Rockefeller University, 1977, 1, 1–7.
Frederiksen, C. Representing logical and semantic structure of knowledge acquired from discourse. Cognitive Psychology, 1975, 7, 371–458.
Freud, S.. Moses and monotheism. Standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 23. London: Hogarth Press, 1939.
Frijda, N. J., & de Groot, A. D. (Eds.). Otto Selz: His contribution to psychology. The Hague: Mouton, 1982.
Furth, H. G. Piaget and knowledge. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.
Gadenne, V. Die Gültigkeit psychologischer Untersuchungen. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1976.
Geis, M. L., & Zwicky, A. M. On invited inference. Linguistic Inquiry, 1971, 2, 561–566.
Goffman, E. Frame analysis. New York: Harper & Row, 1974.
Graumann, C.F. Experiment, statistics, history: Wundt’s first program of psychology. In W. G. Bringmann & R. D. Tweeny (Eds.), Wundt studies. Toronto: Hogrefe, 1980.
Graumann, C F., & Sommer, M. The theorem of unconscious inference. In G. Eckardt & L. Sprung (Eds.), Advances in historiography of psychology, Proceedings XXII. International Congress of Psychology. Berlin: Verlag der Wissenschaften, in press.
Guilford, J. P. Psychometric methods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1936.
Guiora, A. On clinical diagnosis and prediction. Psychological Reports, 1965, 17, 779–784.
Guyote, M. J., & Sternberg, R. J. A transitive-chain theory of syllogistic inference. Technical Report No. 5. Department of Psychology, Yale University, 1978.
Hamilton, D. L. Cognitive biases in the perception of social groups. In J. S. Carroll & J. W. Payne (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1976.
Hamilton, D. L. A cognitive attributional analysis of stereotyping. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 12). New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Harris, R. J., & Monaco, G. E. The psychology of pragmatic implication: Information processing between the lines. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1978, 107, 1–22.
Hastie, R., & Kumar, P. A. Person memory: Personality traits as organizing principles in memory for behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1979, 37, 25–38.
Hastie, R., Ostrom, T., Ebbesen, E., Wyer, R., Hamilton, D., & Carlston, D. (Eds.). Person memory: The cognitive basis of social perception. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980.
Head, H. Studies in neurology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1920.
Heckhausen, H. Motivation und Handeln. Lehrbuch der Motivationspsychologie. Heidelberg: Springer, 1980.
Heckhausen, H., & Weiner, B. The emergence of a cognitive psychology of motivation. In P. C. Dodwell (Ed.), New horizons in psychology (Vol. 2.) Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972.
Heider, F. Ding und Medium. Symposium, 1926, 1, 109–157.
Heider, F. The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley, 1958.
Herrmann, T. Der Schema-Begriff in der Denkpsychologie. In H. Thomae (Ed.), Berichtüber den 22 Kongress der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie. Göttingen: Hogrefe, 1960.
Hildyard, A., & Oison, D. R. Memory and inference in the comprehension of oral and written discourse. Discourse Processes, 1978, 1, 91–119.
Humphrey G. Thinking. London: Methuen, 1951.
Hymes, D. Ways of speaking. In R. Bauman & J. Sherzer (Eds.), Explorations in the ethnography of speaking. London: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
Ichheiser, G. Misunderstandings in human relations: A study in false social perception. American Journal of Sociology, 1949, 55, Part 2, 1–70.
Iran-Nejad, A. The schema: A functional or a structural pattern. Caster for the study of reading. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Technical Report No. 159, 5, 1980.
Johnson, M. K., Bransford, J. D., & Solomon, S. Memory for tacit implications of sentences. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973, 98, 203–205.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. Mental models in cognitive science. Cognitive Science, 1980, 4, 71–115.
Jones, E. E., & Davis, K. E. From acts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press, 1965.
Jones, E. E., & Thibaut, J. W. Interaction goals as bases of inference in person perception. In R. Tagiuri & L. Petrullo (Eds.), Person perception and interpersonal behavior. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1958.
Jones, E., Kanouse, D. E., Kelly, H. H., Nisbett, R. E., Valins, S., & Weiner, B. Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior. Morristown, N. J.: General Learning Press, 1971.
Kanouse, D. E. Language, labeling, and attribution. In E. Jones, D. Kanouse, H. H. Kelly, R. E. Nisbett, S. Valins, & B. Weiner (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior. Morristown, N. J.: General Learning Press, 1971.
Kant, I. Critique of pure reason. (1. Aufl. ca. 1781, 2. Aufl. 1787). London: Macmillan, 1963.
Katz, D., & Braly, K. W. Racial stereotypes of 100 college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1933, 28, 280–290.
Kelley, H. H. Causal schemata and the attribution process. In E. E. Jones, D. E. Kanouse, H. H. Kelley, R. E. Nisbett, S. Valins, & B. Weiner (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior. Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Press, 1971.
Kintsch, W. The processing of implicit information during reading. In F. Klix (Ed.), Organisatorische Informationsverarbeitung. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1974.
Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A. Recalling and summarizing stories. Languages, 1975, 40, 98–116.
Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A. Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 1978, 85, 363–394.
Koch, S. Psychology and emerging conceptions of knowledge as unitary. In T. W. Wann (Ed.), Behaviorism and phenomenology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
Köhler, W. Gestalt psychology. New York: Liveright, 1929/1947.
Koffka, K. Principles of gestalt psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1935.
Krech, D., & Crutchfield, R. S. Theory and problems of social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948.
Krech, D., Crutchfield, R. S., & Ballachey, E. L. Individual in society. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.
Kruglanski, A. W. Lay epistemo-logic process and contents: Another look at attribution theory. Psychological Review, 1980, 87, 70–87.
Kruglanski, A. W., Hamel, I. Z., Maides, S. A., & Schwartz, J. M. Attribution theory as a special case of lay-epistemology. In J. H. Harvey, W. Ickes, & R. F. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol.2). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978.
Kruse, L. Overcoming a dematerialized social psychology. Paper presented at the conference Toward a social psychology of the environment. Paris, France, June 24–26, 1981.
Kuipers, B. A frame for frames: Representing knowledge for recognition. In D. B. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding. Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Lachman, R., Lachman, J. L., & Butterfield, E. C. Cognitive psychology and information processing. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979.
Lakoff, G. Structural complexity in fairy tales. The Study of Man, 1972, 1, 128–150.
Lewin, K. A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935.
Lilje, G. W. Uninvited inferences. Linguistic Inquiry, 1972, 3, 540–542.
Lippmann, W. Public opinion. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1922.
Loftus, E. F. Leading questions and the eyewitness report. Cognitive Psychology, 1975, 7, 560–572.
Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1974, 13, 585–589.
Mace, W. M., James J. Gibson’s strategy for perceiving: Ask not what’s inside your head, but what your head’s inside of. In R. Shaw & J. Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting and knowing. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.
Mandler, J. G. A code in the code: The use of a story schema in retrieval. Discourse Processes, 1978, 1, 14–35.
Mandler, J. G., & Johnson, N. S. Remembrance of things passed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology, 1977, 9, 111–151.
Mandler, J. M. Categorical schematic organisation in memory. In C. R. Puff (Ed.), Memory, organization and structure. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Mandler, J. M., & Mandler, J. G. Thinking: From association to gestalt. New York: Wiley, 1964.
Manz, W. Das Stereotyp (2nd ed.). Meisenheim: Hain, 1974.
McGuire, W. J. A syllogistic analysis of cognitive relationships. In C. I. Hovland & M. J. Rosenberg (Eds.), Attitude organization and change. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960.
Meyer, B. J. F. The organization of prose and its effects on memory. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1975.
Michotte, A. The perception of causality. London: Methuen, 1963.
Mill, J. S. System of logic, ratiocinative and inductive. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973.
Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1960.
Milligan, J. R. Schema learning theory: An approach to perceptual learning. Review of Educational Research, 1979, 49, 197–207.
Minsky, M. A framework for representing knowledge. In P. A. Winston (Ed.), The psychology of computer version. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
Monaco, G. E. The locus of inference construction. Unpublished paper, University of Kansas, 1977.
Morgan, J. J. B., & Morton, J. T. The distortion of syllogistic reasoning produced by personal convictions. Journal of Social Psychology, 1944, 20, 39–59.
Neisser, U. Cognition and reality. San Francisco: Freeman, 1976.
Neisser, U. On “social knowing” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1980, 6, 601–605.
Nelson, R. J. Behaviorism is false. The Journal of Philosophy, 1969, 66, 417–151.
Newell, A., Shaw, J. C., Simon, H. A. Elements of a theory of human problem solving. Psychological Review, 1958, 65, 151–166.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972.
Newtson, D. Foundations of attribution: The perception of ongoing behavior. In H. J. Harvey, W. Ickes, & R. F. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1976.
Newtson, J. An interactionist perspective on social knowing. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1980, 6, 520–531.
Nisbett, R. L., & Ross, L. Human inference. Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980.
Nisbett, R. E., & Schachter, S. The cognitive manipulation of pain. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 1966, 2, 227–236.
Norman, D. A. Twelve issues for cognitive science. Cognitive Science, 1980, 4, 1–32.
Norman, D. A., & Bobrow, D. G. On the role of active memory processes in perception and cognition. In C. N. Cofer (Ed.), The structure of human memory. San Francisco: Freeman, 1975.
Observer. Concerning cognitive reversionism in psychology. Psychological Record, 1977, 27, 351–354.
Observer. The recycling of cognition in psychology. Psychological Record, 1978, 28, 157–160.
Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. The measurement of meaning. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1957.
Passini, F. T., & Norman, W. T. A universal conception of personality structure? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 4, 44–49.
Peterson, C. R., & Beach, L. R. Man as an intuitive statistician. Psychological Bulletin, 1967, 68, 29–46.
Piaget, J. The language and thought of the child. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Jovanovich, 1926.
Piaget, J. The origins of intelligence in children. New York: International Universities Press, 1952.
Piaget, J. The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books, 1954.
Piaget, J. The mechanism of perception. New York: Basic Books, 1969.
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. Die Psychologie des Kindes. Olten: Walter, 1972.
Pike, K. L. Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior. (3 Vols., 2nd revised edition). Den Haag: Mouton, 1967.
Posner, M. I. Cognition: Natural and artificial. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), The Loyola Symposium. Washington, D. C: Winston, 1973.
Posner, M. I., & Keele, J. W. Retention of abstract ideas. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970, 83, 304–308.
Posner, R. Discussion of D. E. Rumelhart: “Understanding understanding” Paper presented at the Conference on Psycholinguistic Models of Language Production. Kassel, July 13–17, 1980.
Propp, V. Morphology of the folktale. Austin: University of Texas, 1968.
Reichenbach, H. Experience and prediction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961.
Rosch, E. Cognitive representations of semantic categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1975, 104, 192–233.
Rosch, E. Principles of categorization. In E. Rosch & B. B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978.
Rosenberg, S., Nelson, C., & Vivekananthan, P. S. A multidimensional approach to the structure of personality impression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 9, 283–294.
Rosenberg, S. V., & Sedlack, A. Structural representations of implicit personality theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6). New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Ross, L. The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental socialpsychology (Vol. 10). New York: Academic Press, 1977.
Rumelhart, D. Notes on a schema for stories. In D. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Rumelhart, D. Understanding and summarizing brief stories. In D. La Berge & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), Basic processes in reading: Perception and comprehension. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.
Rumelhart, D. Schemata: The building-blocks of cognition. In R. Spiro, B. Bruce, & W. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980.
Rumelhart, D., & Ortony, A. The representation of knowledge in memory. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.
Schachter, S. The interaction of cognitive and physiological determinants of emotional state. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 1). New York; Academic Press, 1964.
Schachter, S., & Singer, J. Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 1962, 65, 379–399.
Schank, R. C. The role of memory in language processing. In C. N. Cofer (Ed.), The structure of human memory. San Francisco: Freeman, 1975. (a)
Schank, R. C. The structure of episodes in memory. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic Press, 1975. (b)
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. Scripts, plans, goals and understanding. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.
Schapp, W. In Geschichten verstrickt (2nd ed.).Wiesbaden: Heymann, 1976.
Scheerer, M. Cognitive theory. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1). Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954.
Schneider, D. Implicit personality theory: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 1973, 79, 294–319.
Schneider, D. J., Hastorf, A. H., & Ellsworth, P. C. Person perception (2nd ed.). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979.
Schutz, A. Collected papers (3 vols.). The Hague: Nijhoff. Vol. I, 1962/1967.
Sells, S. B. The atmosphere effect: An experimental study of reasoning. Archive of Psychology, 1936, No. 200.
Selz, O. Über die Gesetze des geordneten Denkverlaufs. Stuttgart: Spemann, 1913.
Selz, O. Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens und des Irrtums. Bonn: Cohen, 1922.
Selz, O. Die Gesetze der produktiven und reproduktiven Geistestätigkeit. Bonn: Cohen, 1924.
Simon, H. A. Cognitive science: The newest science of the artificial. Cognitive Science, 1980, 4, 33–46.
Skinner, B. F. Why I am not a cognitive psychologist. Behaviorism, 1978, 5, 1–10.
Snyder, M., & Cantor, N. Testing hypotheses about other people: The use of historical knowledge. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1979, 15, 330–342.
Snyder, M., & Uranowitz, S. Reconstructing the past: Some cognitive consequences of person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1978, 36, 941–950.
Spencer, H. First principles (1862) New York: Appleton, 1895.
Spiro, R. J. Remembering information from text: The “state of schema” approach. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of language. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.
Spiro, R. J. Prior knowledge and story processing. Integration, selection, and variation. Poetics, 1980, 9, 313–327.
Stein, N. L., & Glenn, C. G. An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. In R. Freedle (Ed.), Multi-disciplinary perspectives in discourse comprehension. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1978.
Sternberg, R. J., & Turner, M. E. Components of syllogistic reasoning. Technical Report No. 6, Department of Psychology, Yale Unviersity, 1978.
Stotland, F., & Canon, L. K. Social psychology—A cognitive approach. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1972.
Tajfel, H. Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Scientific American, 1970, 223, 96–102.
Tajfel, H., Billig, M., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1971, 1, 149–178.
Tannen, D. What’s in a frame? Surface evidence for underlying expectations. In R. O. Freedle (Ed.), New directions in discourse processing. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1979.
Thomas, W. I., & Znaniecki, F. The Polish peasant in Europe and America (5 Vols.). Boston: Badger, 1918.
Thorndike, E. L. A constant error in psychological ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1920, 4, 25–29.
Thorndyke, P. W. The role of inferences in discourse comprehension. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1976, 15, 437–446.
Thorndyke, P. W., & Yekovich, F. R. A critique of schema-based theories of human story memory. Poetics, 1980, 9, 23–49.
Tolman, E. C. Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1932.
Turing, A. M. On computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Proceedings of the London Mathematics Society (Series 2), 1936, 42, 230–265.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 1974, 185, 1124–1131.
Valins, S. Cognitive effects of false heart-rate feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 4, 400–408.
Warren, H. C. (Ed.), Dictionary of psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1934.
Warren, W. H., Nicholas, D. W., & Trabasso, T. Event chains and inferences in understanding narratives. In R. Freedle (Ed.), Advances in discourse processing, Vol. 2. New directions. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1979.
Weiner, B. (Ed.). Cognitive views of human motivatioon. New York: Academic Press, 1974.
Wiener, N. Cybernetics. New York: Wiley, 1948.
Winograd, T. Frame representations and the declarative-procedural controversy. In D. S. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Winograd, T. A framework for understanding discourse. In M. A. Just & P. A. Carpenter (Eds.), Cognitive processes in comprehension. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.
Wohlwill, J. F. The environment is not in the head. In W. F. E. Preiser (Ed.), Environmental design research. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross, 1974.
Woodworth, R. S., & Sells, S. B. An atmosphere effect in formal syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1935, 18, 451–460.
von Wright, G. H. Practical inference. Philosophical Review, 1963, 72, 159–179.
von Wright, G. H. On so-called practical inference. Acta Sociologica, 1972, 15, 39–53.
Wundt, W. Beiträge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung. Leipzig: Winter, 1862.
Wundt, W. Vorlesungen über die Menschen — und Thierseele (2 Vols.). Leipzig: Voss, 1863.
Wyer, R. S. The role of probabilistic and syllogistic reasoning in cognitive organization and social inference. In M. Kaplan & S. Schwartz (Eds.), Human judgment and decision processes. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
Wyer, R. S. Effects of previously formed beliefs on syllogistc inference processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976, 33, 307–316.
Wyer, R. S. Logical and non-logical factors in making inferences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1977, 13, 577–595.
Wyer, R. S., & Carlston, D. E. Social cognition, inference, and attribution. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979.
Wyer, R. S., & Goldberg, L. A. A probabilistic analysis of the relationships between beliefs and attitudes. Psychological Review, 1970, 77, 100–120.
Wyer, R. S., & Hartwick, J. Information retrieval, syllogistic reasoning and social inference. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol 13). New York; Academic Press, 1980.
Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. The processing of social stimulus information: A conceptual integration. In R. Hastie, T. Ostrom, E. Ebbesen, R. Wyer, D. Hamilton, & D. Carlston (Eds.), Person memory: The cognitive basis of social psychology. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1980.
Zajonc, R. Cognitive theories in social psychology. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol 1). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968.
Zajonc, R. Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 1980, 35, 151–175.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1984 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Graumann, C.F., Sommer, M. (1984). Schema and Inference. In: Royce, J.R., Mos, L.P. (eds) Annals of Theoretical Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6450-8_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6450-8_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4615-6452-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-6450-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive