Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Electronic Materials: Science & Technology ((EMST,volume 5))

Abstract

The operation principle of a solar cell is based on a sufficiently long lifetime of photoexcited electrons and holes such that they can become spatially separated and thus contribute to the net current. A “classical” solar cell consists of a p-type and an n-type domain formed within the same material, thus creating a p-n junction. Geminate recombination (i.e. recombination of photoexcited electrons and holes associated with each other by one photon absorption event) is prevented in such a cell by the internal field existing at the p-n junction. After separation, carrier recombination may still take place. In fact, non-geminate recombination is the most important loss mechanism in a solar cell.

We chose to examine discharge-produced a-Si as a potential solar cell material because of its unusual electrical and optical properties. —D.E. Carlson and C.R. Wronski, 1976

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Arya, R.R., A. Catalano, and R.S. Oswald, Amorphous silicon p-i-n solar cells with graded interface, Appl. Phys. Lett. 49 (1986) 1089–1091.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arya, R.R., R.S. Oswald, Y.M. Li, N. Maley, K. Jansen, L. Yang, L.F. Chen, F. Willig, M.S. Bennet, J. Morris, and D.E. Carlson, Progress in amorphous silicon based multijunction modules, 1st World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, (Proc. 24th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Waikoloa, HI, USA, December 1994) 394–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashida, Y., Single-junction a-Si solar cells with over 13 % efficiency, Techn. Digest of the International PVSEC-7, Nagoya, Japan, 1993, 33–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banerjee, A., and S. Guha, Study of back reflectors for amorphous silicon alloy solar cell application, J. Appl. Phys. 69 (1991) 1030–1035.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beneking, C., B. Rech, Th. Eickhoff, Y.G. Michael, N. Schultz, and H. Wagner, Preparation and light stability of a-Si/a-Si stacked solar cells, 12th International E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1994, Eds. R. Hill, W. Palz, and P. Helm (H.S. Stephens and Associates, 1994) 683–686.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, D.E., and C.R. Wronski, Amorphous silicon solar cell, Appl. Phys. Lett. 28 (1976) 671–673.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, D.E. and B.F. Williams, Photodetector having enhanced back reflection, U.S. Patent No. 4,442,310; April 10, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daey Ouwens, J., R.E.I. Schropp, J. Wallinga, W.F. van der Weg, M. Ritala, M. Leskelä, and J. Hyvärinen, Titanium dioxide as superior transparant conducting oxide for an improved conversion efficiency of a-Si solar cells, 12th International E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1994, Eds. R. Hill, W. Palz, and P. Helm (H.S. Stephens and Assoc, 1994) 1296–1299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deckman, H.W., C.R. Wronski, H. Witzke, and E. Yablonovitch, Optically enhanced amorphous silicon solar cells, Appl. Phys. Lett. 42 (1983) 968–970.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deng, X., and K.L. Narasimhan, New evaluation technique for thin-film solar cell back-reflector using photothermal deflection spectroscopy, 1st World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, (Proc. 24th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Waikoloa, HI, USA, December 1994) 555–558.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Nijs, J.M.M.C. Carvalho, M. Santos, and R. Martins, A thin SiO layer as a remedy for the indium reduction at the In 2O3/μc-Si:C:E interface, Appl. Surf. Sci. 52 (1991) 339–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fujikake, S., K. Tabuchi, T. Yoshida, Y. Ichikawa and H. Sakai, Flexible a-Si solar cells with plastic film substrate, in: Amorphous Silicon Technology — 1995, edited by M. Hack, E.A. Schiff, A. Madan, M. Powell, and A. Matsuda, Materials Research Society Symp. Proc. 377 (1995) 609–619.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, R., J. Proscia, F.B. Ellis, and A.E. Delahoy, Textured tin oxide films produced by atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition from tetramethyltin and their usefulness ion producing light trapping in thin film amorphous silicon solar cells, Solar Energy Mater. 18 (1989) 263–281.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green, M.A., A. Wang, J. Zhao, G.F. Zheng, W. Zhang, Z. Shi, C.B. Honsberg, and S.R. Wenham, 23.5 % efficiency and other recent improvements in silicon solar cell and module performance, 12th International E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1994, Eds. R. Hill, W. Palz, and P. Helm (H.S. Stephens and Assoc., 1994) 776–779.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guha, S., J. Yang, A. Pawlikiewicz, T. Glatfelter, R. Ross, and S.R. Ovshinsky, Band-gap profiling for improving the efficiency of amorphous silicon alloy solar cells, Appl. Phys. Lett. 54 (1989) 2330–2332.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guha, S., J. Yang, A. Banerjee, and S. Sugiyama, Material issues in the commercialization of amorphous silicon ally thin-film photovoltaic technology, in: Amorphous and Macrocrystalline Silicon Technology — 1998, edited by R. Schropp, H. Branz, S. Wagner, M. Hack, and I. Shimizu, Materials Research Society Symp. Proc. 507 (1998) in print.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hack, M., and M. Shur, Physics of amorphous silicon alloy p-i-n solar cells, J. Appl. Phys. 58 (1985) 997–1020.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamberg, I., and C.G. Granqvist, Evaporated Sn-doped In2O3 films: basic optical properties and applications to energy-efficient windows, J. Appl. Phys. 60 (1986) R123–R159.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartnagel, H., A. Dawar, A. Jain, and C. Jagadish, Semiconducting Transparent Thin Films, (Institute of Physics Publishing, 1995).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ichikawa, Y., T. Ihara, S. Saito, H. Ota, S. Fujikake, and H. Sakai, Production technology for large area amorphous silicon solar cells with high efficiency, 11th E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1992, Eds. L. Guimarães, W. Palz, C. de Reyff, H. Kiess, and P. Helm (Harwood Academic Publishers, 1992) 203–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iida, H., N. Shiba, T. Mishuku, H. Karasawa, A. Ito, M. Yamanaka, and Y. Hayashi, Efficiency of the a-Si:H solar cell and grain size of SnO 2 transparent conductive film, IEEE Electron Dev. Lett. EDL-4 (1983) 157–159.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keppner, H., P. Torres, J. Meier, R. Platz, D. Fischer, U. Kroll, S. Dubail, J.A. Anna Selvan, N. Pellaton Vaucher, Y. Ziegler, R. Tscharner, Ch. Hof, N. Beck, M. Goetz, P. Pernet, M. Goerlitzer, N. Wyrsch, J. Veuille, J. Cuperus, A. Shah, J. Pohl, The “Micromorph” cell: a new way to high-efficiency low-temperature crystalline silicon thin-film cell manufacturing?, in: Advances in Microcrystalline and Nanocrystalline Semiconductors-1996, edited by R.W. Collins, P.M. Faucher, I. Shimizu, J.C. Vial, T. Shimada, and A.P. Alivisatos, Materials Research Society Symp. Proc. 452 (1996) 865–876.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kluth, O., A. Löffl, S. Wieder, C. Beneking, W. Appenzeller, L. Houben, B. Rech, H. Wagner, S. Hoffmann, R. Waser, J.A. Anna Selvan, and H. Keppner, Texture etched Al-doped ZnO: a new material for enhanced light trapping in thin film solar cells Proc. of the 26th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1997, Anaheim, CA, USA, 715–718.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kubon, M., E. Böhmer, F. Siebke, B. Rech, C. Beneking, and H. Wagner, Solution of the ZnO/p contact problem in a-Si:H solar cells, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 41/42 (1996) 485–492.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kusian, W., J. Furlan, G. Conte, F. Smole, M. Topic, and P. Popovic, The pin/TCO/-nip a-Si:H solar module, 12th International E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1994, Eds. R. Hill, W. Palz, and P. Helm (H.S. Stephens and Assoc, 1994) 1249–1252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landweer, G.E.N., B.S. Girwar, C.H.M. van der Werf, J.W. Metselaar, and R.E.I. Schropp, Enhanced efficiency and stability of amorphous silicon tandem solar cells by applying a highly reflective back contact, 12th International E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1992, Eds. R. Hill, W. Palz, and P. Helm (H.S. Stephens and Associates, 1994) 1300–1303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maycock, P., PV News, February (1998).

    Google Scholar 

  • Meier, J., S. Dubail, J. Cuperus, U. Kroll, R. Platz, P. Torres, J.A. Anna Selvan, P. Pernet, N. Beck, N. Pellaton Vaucher, Ch. Hof, D. Fischer, H. Keppner, and A. Shah, Recent progress in micromorph cells, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 227-230 (1998) 1250–1256.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meier, J., H. Keppner, S. Dubail, U. Kroll, P. Torres, P. Pernet, Y. Ziegler, J.A. Anna Selvan, J. Cuperus, D. Fischer, and A. Shah, Microcrystalline single-junction and micromorph tandem thin film silicon solar cells, in: Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon Technology — 1998, edited by R. Schropp, H. Branz, S. Wagner, M. Hack, and I. Shimizu, Materials Research Society Symp. Proc. 507 (1998) in print.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyachi, K., N. Ishiguro, T. Miyashita, N. Yanagawa, H. Tanaka, M. Koyama, Y. Ashida, and N. Fukuda, Fabrication of single pin type solar cells with a high conversion efficiency of 13.0 %, 11th E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1992, Eds. L. Guimarães, W. Palz, C. de Reyff, H. Kiess, and P. Helm (Harwood Academic Publishers, 1992) 88–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mizuhashi, M., Y. Gotoh, and K. Adachi, Texture morphology of SnO 2:F films and cell reflectance, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 27 (1988) 2053–2061.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, J., R.R. Arya, J.G. O’Dowd, and S. Wiedemann, Absorption Enhancement in Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H) based solar cells, J. Appl. Phys. 67 (1990) 1079–1087.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hishikawa, Y., K. Ninomiya, E. Maruyama, S. Kuroda, A. Terakawa, K. Sayama, H. Tarui, M. Sasaki, S. Tsuda, and S. Nakano, Approaches for stable multi-junction a-Si solar cells, 1st World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, (Proc. 24th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Waikoloa, HI, USA, December 1994) 386–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rath, J.K., F.A. Rubinelli, and R.E.I. Schropp, Microcrystalline n-and p-layers at the tunnel junction of a-Si:H/a-Si:H tandem cells, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 227-230 (1998) 1282–1286.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rath, J.K., and R.E.I. Schropp, Incorporation of p-type microcrystalline silicon films in amorphous silicon based solar cells in a superstrate structure, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 53 (1998) 189–203.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rochelau, R.E., M. Tun, and S.S. Hegedus, Analysis and optimization of high efficiency multijunction a-Si:H solar cells, Proc. 26th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Anaheim, CA, USA, 1997) 703–706.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth, A.P., and D.F. Williams, Semiconducting ZnO fims prepared by Metal Organic CVD from diethyl zinc, J. Electrochem. Soc. 128 (1981) 2684–2686.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schropp, R.E.I., and A. Madan, Properties of conductive zinc oxide films prepared by rf magnetron sputtering for transparent electrode applications J. Appl. Phys. 66 (1989) 2027–2031.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, A., New and enhanced silicon solar cells, First JOULE III PV Contractor’s meeting, May 5–7, 1998, CCAB-Brussels.

    Google Scholar 

  • Street, R.A., Hydrogenated amorphous silicon, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 1991).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, H., N. Ishiguro, T. Miyashita, N. Yanagawa, M. Sadamoto, M. Koyama, Y. Ashida, and N. Fukuda, Fabricating high performance a-Si solar cells by alternately repeating deposition and hydrogen plasma treatment method, Techn. Digest of the International PVSEC-7, Nagoya, Japan, 1993, 269–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tao, G., B.S. Girwar, G. Landweer, M. Zeman, and J.W. Metselaar, Highly reflective TCO/Al back contact for a-Si:H solar cells, 11th E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1992, Eds. L. Guimarães, W. Palz, C. de Reyff, H. Kiess, and P. Helm (Harwood Academic Publishers, 1992) 605–608.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tawada, Y., H. Okamoto, and Y. Hamakawa, a-SiC:H/a-Si:H heterojunction solar cell having more than 7.1 % efficiency, Appl. Phys. Lett. 39 (1981) 237–239.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Terakawa, A., M. Shima, T. Kinoshita, M. Isomura, M. Tanaka, S. Kiyama, S. Tsuda, and H. Matsunami, The effect of the optical gap and compositions of a-SiGe:H solar cells on the time decay of light-induced degradation, Proc. of the 14th E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 30 June–4 July 1997, Barcelona, Spain, Eds. H.A. Ossenbrink, P. Helm, and H. Ehmann (H.S. Stephens and Associates, 1997) 2359–2362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Von der Linden, M.B., R.E.I. Schropp, J. Stammeijer and W.F. van der Weg, Evaluation of the DICE method as a tool for amorphous silicon solar cell optimization, in: Amorphous Silicon Technology — 1992, edited by M.J. Thompson, Y. Hamakawa, P.G. LeComber, A. Madan, and E. Schiff, Materials Research Society Symp. Proc. 258 (1992) 935–940.

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Roedern, B., Higher cell efficiencies through defect engineering of solar cell junctions, 11th E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference 1992, Eds. L. Guimarães, W. Palz, C. de Reyff, H. Kiess, and P. Helm (Harwood Academic Publishers, 1992) 295–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, C., R.E. Hollingsworth, and A. Madan, Determination of the efficiency enhancement due to scattering from rough TCO contact for a-Si:H p-i-n solar cells, in: Amorphous Silicon Semiconductors — Pure and Hydrogenated, edited by A. Madan, M. Thompson, D. Adler, and Y. Hamakawa, Materials Research Society Symp. Proc. 95 (1987) 527–532.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallinga, J., W.M. Arnold Bik, A.M. Vredenberg, R.E.I. Schropp, and W.F. van der Weg, Reduction of tin oxide by hydrogen radicals, to be published in J. Phys. Chem. (1998).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wenas, W.W., K. Dairiki, A. Yamada, M. Konagai, K. Takahashi, J.H. Jang, and K.S. Lim, High efficiency a-Si solar cells with ZnO films, 1st World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, (Proc. 24th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Waikoloa, HI, USA, December 1994) 413–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, J.M. H. Schade, H. Maurus, B. Dimmler, J. Springer, and A. Ricaud, A study of the upscaling of thin film solar cell manufacture towards 500 MWp per annum, Proc. of the 14th E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 30 June–4 July 1997, Barcelona, Spain, Eds. H.A. Ossenbrink, P. Helm, and H. Ehmann (H.S. Stephens and Associates, 1997) 857–860.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xi, J., D. Shugar, and H. Volltrauer, Large area module performance and identification and control of p-i interface-correlated device degradation and further improvement in stabilized efficiencies of single-junction a-Si solar cells, 1st World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, (Proc. 24th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Waikoloa, HI, USA, December 1994) 401–404.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yablanovitch, E., and G.D. Cody, Intensity enhancement in textured optical sheets for solar cells, IEEE Trans. Elec. Dev. ED-29 (1982) 300–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamoto, K. Thin film poly-Si solar cell on glass substrate fabricated at low temperature, in: Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon Technology — 1998, edited by R. Schropp, H. Branz, S. Wagner, M. Hack, and I. Shimizu, Materials Research Society Symp. Proc. 507 (1998) in print.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamanaka, S., S. Kawamura, M. Konagai and K. Takahashi, Technical Digest of the International PVSEC-3, Tokyo, Japan, 1987, 709-712.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, J., A. Banerjee, T. Glatfelter, K. Hoffman, X. Xu, and S. Guha, Progress in triple-junction amorphous silicon-based alloy solar cells and modules using hydrogen dilution, 1st World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, (Proc. 24th IEEE PV Specialists Conference, Waikoloa, HI, USA, December 1994) 380–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, J., A. Banerjee, and S. Guha, Triple-junction amorphous silicon alloy solar cell with 14.6 % initial and 13.0 % stable conversion efficiencies, Appl. Phys. Lett. 70 (1997) 2975–2977.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, J., A. Banerjee, S. Sugiyama, and S. Guha, Correlation of component cells with high efficiency amorphous silicon alloy triple-junction solar cells and modules, presented at the 2nd World Conference and Exhibition on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, to be published.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Schropp, R.E.I., Zeman, M. (1998). Technology of Solar Cells. In: Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon Solar Cells: Modeling, Materials and Device Technology. Electronic Materials: Science & Technology, vol 5. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5631-2_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5631-2_4

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-8317-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-5631-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics