Skip to main content

The Psychobiology of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

  • Chapter
Handbook of Disruptive Behavior Disorders

Abstract

The aim of this chapter is to link the advances in our understanding of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) delineated in this book to evolving models of brain function and dysfunction. The model presented here is a compendium and elaboration of others proposed over the past three decades. For economy, comprehensive reviews are cited rather than primary sources whenever possible, since the principal goal is to outline broad areas of previous work and directions for future studies, rather than to claim the status of a complete theory.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Albin, R. L., Young, A. B., & Penney, J. B. (1995). The functional anatomy of disorders of the basal ganglia. Trendy in Neuroscience, 18, 63–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander,G.E.,DeLong,M.R.,&Strick,P.L.(1986). Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience9,357–381.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amen, D. G., Paldi, J. H.,& Thisted, R. A. (1993). Brain SPECT imaging. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry32,1080–1081.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnsten, A. E (1997). Catecholamine regulation of the prefrontal cortex. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 11, 151–162.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnsten, A. F., Steere, J. C., & Hunt, R. D. (1996). The contribution of alpha 2-noradrenergic mechanisms of prefrontal cortical cognitive function. Potential significance for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 448–455.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aylward, E. H., Reiss, A. L., Reader, M. J., Singer, H. S., Brown, J. E., & Denckla, M. B. (1996). Basal ganglia volumes in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Neurology,11,112–115.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banki, C. M. (1977). Correlation between cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites and psychomotor activity in affective disorders. Journal of Neurochemistty, 28, 255–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bannon, M. J., Granneman, J. G., & Kapatos, G. (1995). The dopamine transporter: Potential involvement in neuropsychiatric disorders. In F. E. Bloom & D. J. Kupfer (Eds.), Psychopharmacology: The fourth generation of progress (pp. 179–188). New York: Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumgardner, T. L., Singer, H. S., Denckla, M. B., Rubin, M. A., Abrams, M. T., Colli, M. J., & Reiss, A. L. (1996). Corpus callosum morphology in children with Tourette syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurology,47,477–482.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter, L. R. (1990). Brain imaging as a tool in establishing a theory of brain pathology in obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51(2 (Suppl.)), 22–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, J., Li, L., Patterson, C., Greenberg, B. D., Murphy, D. L., & Hamer, D. H. (1996). Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of Novelty Seeking. Nature Genetics,12,81–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berquin, P. C., Giedd, J. N., Jacobsen, L. K., Hamburger, S. D., Krain, A. L., Rapoport, J. L., & Castellanos, F. X. (1998). The cerebellum in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A morphometric study. Neurology, 50, 1087–1093.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berridge, K., Vernier, I. L., & Robinson, T. E. (1989). Taste reactivity analysis of 6-hydroxydopamine induced aphagia: Implications for arousal and anhedonia hypotheses of dopamine function. Behavioral Neuroscience, 103, 36–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonisch, H., & Eiden, L. (1998). Catecholamine reuptake and storage: Overview. Advances in Pharmacology, 42, 149–164.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bourgeois, J. P., & Rakic, P. (1993). Changes of synaptic density in the primary visual cortex of the macaque monkey from fetal to adult stage. Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 2801–2820.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breiter, H. C., Gollub, R. L., Weisskoff, R. M., Kennedy, D. N., Makris, N., Berke, J. D., Goodman, J. M., Kantor, H. L., Gastfriend, D. R., Riorden, J. P., Mathew, R. T., Rosen, B. R., & Hyman, S. E. (1997).Acute effects of cocaine on human brain activity and emotion. Neuron, 19, 591–611.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brumback, R. A., & Staton, R. D. (1982). Right hemisphere involvement in learning disability, attention deficit disorder, and childhood major depressive disorder. Medical Hypotheses, 8, 505–514.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buchsbaum, M., & Wender, P. (1973). Average evoked responses in normal and minimally brain dysfunctioned children treated with amphetamine. Archives of General Psychiatry, 29, 764–770.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, L. H., Annett, L., Kelley, A. E., Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (1996). Effects of lesions to amygdala, ventral subiculum, medial prefrontal cortex, and nucleus accumbens on the reaction to novelty: Implication for limbic-striatal interactions. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110, 60–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cadoret, R. J., & Stewart, M. A. (1991). An adoption study of attention deficit/hyperactivity/aggression and their relationship to adult antisocial personality. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 32,73–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, C. S., Krener, P., Chaderjian, M., Northcutt, C., & Wolfe, V. (1995). Asymmetrical visual-spatial attentional performance in ADHD: Evidence for a right hemispheric deficit. Biological Psychiatry, 37,789–797.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, B. J., Castellanos, E.X., Giedd, J. N., Marsh, W. L., Hamburger, S. D., Schubert, A. B., Vauss, Y. C., Vaituzis, A. C., Dickstein, D. P., Sarfatti, S. E., & Rapoport, J. L. (1997). Implication of right frontostriatal circuitry in response inhibition and attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 374–383.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X. (1997a). Neuroimaging of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America,6, 383–411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, E. X. (1997b). Toward a pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Pediatrics,36, 381–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, E.X., Elia, J., Kruesi, M. J. P., Gulotta, C. S., Mefford, I. N., Potter, W. Z., Ritchie, G. E, & Rapoport, J. L. (1994). Cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolites in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Research,52,305–316.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Elia, J., Kruesi, M. J. P., Marsh, W. L., Gulotta, C. S., Potter, W. Z., Ritchie, G. F., Hamburger, S. D., Rapoport, J. L., & Kruesi, M. J. (1996). Cerebrospinal homovanillic acid predicts behavioral response to stimulants in 45 boys with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 14, 125–137.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Giedd, J. N., Marsh, W. L., Hamburger, S. D., Vaituzis, A. C., Dickstein, D. P., Sarfatti, S. E., Vauss, Y. C., Snell, J. W., Lange, N., Kaysen, D., Krain, A. L., Ritchie, G. F., Rajapakse, J. C., & Rapoport, J. L. (1996). Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 607–616.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Lau, E., Tayebi, N., Lee, P., Long, R. E., Giedd, J. N., Sharp, W. S., Marsh, W. L., Walter, J. M., Hamburger, S.D., Ginns, E. I., Rapoport, J. L., & Sidransky, E. (1998). Lack of association between a dopamine-4 receptor polymorphism and attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder: Genetic and brain morphometric analyses. Molecular Psychiatry,3,431–434.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Warren, R. P., Marsh, W. L., & Rapoport, J. L. (1996). (Complement 4B protein in ADHD: Attempted replication in an independent sample.) Unpublished raw data.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chabot, R. J., & Serfontein, G. (1996). Quantitative electroencephalographic profiles of children with attention deficit disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 951–963.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaouloff, F., Laude, D., Guezennec, Y., & Elghozi, J. L. (1986). Motor activity increases tryptophan, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and homovanillic acid in ventricular cerebrospinal fluid of the conscious rat. Journal of Neurochemistry, 46, 1313–1316.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chappell, R B., Riddle, M. A., Scahill, L., Lynch, K. A., Schultz, R., Arnsten, A., Leckman, J. F., & Cohen, D. J. (1995). Guanfacine treatment of comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and Tourette’s syndrome: Preliminary clinical experience. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,34,1140–1146.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chelune, G. J., Ferguson, W., Koon, R., & Dickey, T. O. (1986). Frontal lobe disinhibition in attention deficit disorder. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 16, 221–234.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chugani, H. T., Phelps, M. E., & Mazziotta, J. C. (1987). Positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. Annals of Neurology, 22, 487–497.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, E. H., Jr., Stein, M. A., Krasowski, M. D., Cox, N. J., Olkon, D. M., Kieffer, J. E., & Leventhal, B. L. (1995). Association of attention deficit disorder and the dopamine transporter gene. American Journal of Human Genetics, 56, 993–998.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corning, W. C., Steffy, R. A., Anderson, E., & Bowers, R. (1986). EEG “maturational lag” profiles: Follow-up analyses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14,235–249.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J., & Hugdahl, K. (Eds.). (1995). Brain asymmetry. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLong, M. R. (1990). Primate models of movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. Trends in Neuroscience, 13, 281–285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla,M.B.(1996).A theory and model of executive function. A neuropsychological perspective. In G. R. Lyon & N. A. Krasnegor (Edo.) Attention, memory,and executive function. (pp. 263–278). Baltimore: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B., Rudel, R. G., Chapman, C., & Krieger, J. (1985). Motor proficiency in dyslexic children with and without attentional disorders. Archives of Neurology, 42, 228–231.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desimone, R. (1996). Neural mechanisms for visual memory and their role in attention. Proceedings of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,93, 13494–13499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobbing, J., & Sands, J. (1973). Quantitative growth and development of human brain. Archives of Diseases of Children, 48, 757–767.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duane, D. D., Clark, M., & Gottlob, L. (1996). Right hemisphere dysfunction correlates with non-wakefulness in attention deficit disorder [Abstract). Neurology,46 [Suppl], Al25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebstein, R. P., Novick, O., Umansky, R., Priel, B., Osher, Y, Blaine, D., Bennett, E. R., Nemanov, L., Katz, M., & Belmaker, R. H. (1996). Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of Novelty Seeking. Nature Genetics,12,78–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, H. T. (1986). Stages in human brain development. Brain Research, 395, 114–119.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst, M., Liebenauer, L. L., King, A. C., Fitzgerald, G. A., Cohen, R. M., & Zametkin, A. J. (1994). Reduced brain metabolism in hyperactive girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,33, 858–868.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Chen, W. J., Krifcher, B., Keenan, K., Moore, C., Sprich, S., & Tsuang, M. T. (1992). Segregation analysis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatric Genetics, 2, 257–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Chen, W. J., Milberger, S., Warburton, R., & Tsuang, M. T. (1995). Genetic heterogeneity in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Gender, psychiatric comorbidity, and maternal ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 334–345.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferraro, L., Antonelli, T., O’Connor, W. T., Tanganelli, S., Rambert, F., & Fuxe, K. (1997). The antinarcoleptic drug modafinil increases glutamate release in thalamic areas and hippocampus. NeuroReport, 8, 2883–2887.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Filipek, R.A., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Steingard, R. J., Renshaw, P. F., Kennedy, D. N., & Biederman, J. (1997). Volumetric MRI analysis comparing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal controls. Neurology,48,589–601.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, M., Barkley, R. A., Edelbrock, C. S., & Smallish, L. (1990). The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria: II. Academic, attentional, and neuropsychological status. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 580–588.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex. Anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • García-Sánchez, C., Estévez-González, A., Suárez-Romero, E., & Junqué, C. (1997). Right hemisphere dysfunction in subjects with attention-deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity. Journal of Child Neurology, 12, 107–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garfinkel, B. D., Wender, R. H., Sloman, L., & O’Neill, I. (1983). Tricyclic antidepressant and methylphenidate treatment of attention deficit disorder in children.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 22, 343–348.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerfen, C. R. (1992). The neostriatal mosaic: Multiple levels of compartmental organization. Trends in Neuroscience,15,133–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giedd, J. N., Castellanos, F. X., Casey, B. J., Kozuch, P., King, A. C., Hamburger, S. D., & Rapoport, J. L. (1994). Quantitative morphology of the corpus callo-sum in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. AmericanJournal of Psychiatry, 151, 665–669.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giedd, J. N., Rapoport, J. L., Kruesi, M. J. P., Parker, C., Schapiro, M. B., Allen, A. J., Leonard, H. L., Richter, D., Kaysen, D., Dickstein, D. P., Marsh, W. L., Kozuch, P. L., Vaituzis, A. C., Hamburger, S. D., Be Swedo, S. E. (1995). Sydenham’s chorea: Magnetic resonance imaging of the basal ganglia. Neurology,45, 2199–2202.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giedd, J. N., Snell, J. W., Lange, N., Rajapakse, J. C., Casey, B. J., Kozuch, P. L., Vaituzis, A. C., Vauss, Y. C., Hamburger, S. D., Kaysen, D., & Rapoport, J. L. (1996). Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain development: Ages 4–18. Cerebral Cortex,6, 551–560.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, M., Daly, G., Heron, S., Hawi, Z., & Fitzgerald, M. (1997). Confirmation of association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and a dopamine transporter polymorphism. Molecular Psychiatry, 2, 311–313.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giros, B., Jaber, M., Jones, S. R., Wightman, R. M., & Caron, M. G. (1996). Hyperlocomotion and indifference to cocaine and amphetamine in mice lacking the dopamine transporter. Nature,379,606–612.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gittelman, R., Mannuzza, S., Shenker, R., & Bonagura, N. (1985). Hyperactive boys almost grown up: I. Psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 937–947.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldman-Rakic, P. S., Lidow, M. S., Smiley, J. F., & Williams, M. S. (1992). The anatomy of dopamine in monkey and human prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neural Transmission Supplement, 36, 163–177.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R., & Stevenson, J. (1989). A twin study of hyperactivity: I. An examination of hyperactivity scores and categories derived from Rutter Teacher and Parent Questionnaires. Journal of Child Psychology fi Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 30, 671–689.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross-Tsur, V., Shalev, R. S., Manor, O., & Amir, N. (1995). Developmental right-hemisphere syndrome: Clinical spectrum of the nonverbal learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28,80–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haber, S. N., & Fudge, J. L. (1997). The interface between dopamine neurons and the amygdala: Implications for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin,23,471–482.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hallett, M. (1993). Physiology of basal ganglia disorders: An overview. Canadian Journal of Neurologic Sciences, 20, 177–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halperin, J. M., Newcom, J. H., Koda, V. H., Pick, L., McKay, K. E., & Knott, P. (1997). Noradrenergic mechanisms in ADHD children with and without reading disabilities: A replication and extension. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1688–1697.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Han, J. S., McMahan, R. W., Holland, P., & Gallagher, M. (1997). The role of an amygdalo-nigrostriatal pathway in associative learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 3913-3919.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, G. L., Ornitz, E. M., Be Hariharan, M. (1996). Urinary epinephrine excretion during intelligence testing in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal boys. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 553–555.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, E. L., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Applegate, B., & Frick, P. J. (1995). Developmental change in attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder in boys: A four year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 729–749.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hedner, J., Lundell, K. H., Breese, G. R., Mueller, R. A., & Hedner, T. (1986). Developmental variations in CSF monoamine metabolites during childhood. Biology of the Neonate, 49, 190–197.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, K. M., Voeller, K. K. S., & Nadeau, S. E. (1991). A possible pathophysiologic substrate of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Neurology, 6, S76–S81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heilige, J. B. (1993). Hemispheric asymmetry: What’s right and what’s left. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendley, E. D., & Fan, X. M. (1992). Regional differences in brain norepinephrine and dopamine uptake kinetics in inbred rat strains with hypertension and/or hyperactivity. Brain Research, 586, 44–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, J. P., Sagne, C., Bolton, D., Isambert, M. F., & Gasnier, B. (1998). Molecular pharmacology of the vesicular monoamine transporter. Advances in Pharmacology, 42, 236–239.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Houk, J. C., & Wise, S. P. (1995). Distributed modular architectures linking basal ganglia, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex: Their role in planning and controlling action. Cerebral Cortex, 5, 95–110.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Husby, G., Van de Rijn, I., Zabriskie, J. B., Abdin, Z. H., & Williams, R. C. (1976). Antibodies reacting with cytoplasm of subthalamic and caudate nuclei neurons in chorea and acute rheumatic fever. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 144, 1094–1110.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huttenlocher, P. R. (1984). Synapse elimination and plasticity in developing human cerebral cortex. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 88, 488–496.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W, Semrud-Clikeman, M., Lorys, A.R., Novey, E. S., & Eliopulos, D. (1990). Brain morphology in developmental dyslexia and attention deficit disorder/hyperactivity. Archives of Neurology,47,919–926.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W, Semrud-Clikeman, M., Lorys, A. R., Novey, E. S., Eliopulos, D., & Lyytinen, H. (1991). Corpus callosum morphology in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Morphometric analysis of MRI.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 141–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W., Hem, K. L., Novey, E. S., Eliopulos, D., Marshall, R., Gonzalez, J. J., & Voeller, K. K. S. (1993). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and asymmetry of the caudate nucleus. Journal of Child Neurology,8,339–347.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iaboni, F., Douglas, V. I., & Ditto, B. (1997). Psychophysiological response of ADHD children to reward and extinction. Psychophysiology, 34, 116–123.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen, L. K., Giedd, J. N., Berquin, R C., Krain, A. L., Hamburger, S. D., Kumra, S., & Rapoport, J. L. (1997). Quantitative morphology of the cerebellum and fourth ventricle in childhood onset schizophrenia. AmericanJournal of Psychiatry, 154, 1663–1669.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinsbourne, M. (1973). Minimal brain dysfunction as a neurodevelopmental lag. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 205, 268–273.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klorman, R., Brumaghim, J. T., Fitzpatrick, R A., Borgstedt, A. D., & Strauss, J. (1994). Clinical and cognitive effects of methylphenidate on children with attention deficit disorder as a function of aggression/oppositionality and age. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 206–221.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kupietz, S. S., & Balka, E. B. (1976). Alterations in the vigilance performance of children receiving amitriptyline and methylphenidate pharmacotherapy. Psychopharmacology,50,29–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LaHoste, G. J., Swanson, J. M., Wigal, S. B., Glabe, C., King, N., Kennedy, J. L., & Wigal, T. (1996). Dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry,1,121–124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Le Moal, M. (1995). Mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic neurons. Functional and regulatory roles. In F. E. Bloom & D. J. Kupfer (Eds.), Psychopharmacology: The fourth generation of progress (pp. 283–294). New York: Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, F. (1980). The development of sustained attention (vigilance) and inhibition in children: Some normative data. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,21,77–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, F. (1991). The dopamine theory of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Australian and New ZealandJournal of Psychiatry, 25, 277–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, F., Hay, D. A., McStephen, M., Wood, C., & Waldman, I. (1997). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,36, 737–744.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lidow, M. S., Goldman-Rakic, P. S., & Rakic, R. (1991). Synchronized overproduction of neurotransmitter receptors in diverse regions of the primate cerebral cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 88, 10218–10221.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lou, H. C., Henriksen, L., & Bruhn, R (1990). Focal cerebral dysfunction in developmental learning disabilities. Lancet, 335, 8–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G.R., & Krasnegor, N.A. (Eds). (1996). Attention, memory, and executive function. Baltimore: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malhotra, A. K., Virkkunen, M., Rooney, W., Eggert, M., Linnoila, M., & Goldman, D. (1996). The association between the dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) 16 amino acid repeat polymorphism and Novelty Seeking. Molecular Psychiatry,1,388–391.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malone, M. A., Kershner, J. R., & Siegel, L. (1988). The effects of methylphenidate on levels of processing and laterality in children with attention deficit disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 379–395.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malone, M. A., Couitis, J., Kershner, J. R., & Logan, W. J. (1994). Right hemisphere dysfunction and methylphenidate effects in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 4, 245–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malone, M. A., Kershner, J. R., & Swanson, J. M. (1994). Hemispheric processing and methylphenidate effects in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Neurology,9,181–189.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mann, C. A., Lubar, J.F.,Zimmerman, A.W., Miller, C.A., & Muenchen, R. A. (1992). Quantitative analysis of EEG in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Controlled study with clinical implications. Pediatric Neurology, 8, 30–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bessler, A., Malloy, P., & LaPadula, M. (1993). Adult outcome of hyperactive boys: Educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 565–576.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mataró, M., García-Sánchez, C., Junqué, C., EstévezGonzález, A., & Pujol, J. (1997). Magnetic resonance imaging measurement of the caudate nucleus in adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and its relationship with neuropsychological and behavioral measures. Archives of Neurology, 54, 963–968.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matochik, J. A., Nordahl, T. E., Gross, M., Semple, W. E., King, A. C., Cohen, R. M., & Zametkin, A. J. (1993). Effects of acute stimulant medication on cerebral metabolism in adults with hyperactivity. Neuropsychopharmacology, 8, 377–386.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattay, V. S., Berman, K. F., Ostrem, J. L., Esposito, G., Van Horn, J. D., Bigelow, L. B., & Weinberger, D. R. (1996). Dextroamphetamine enhances “neural network-specific” physiological signals: A positron-emission tomography rCBF study. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 4816–4822.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCracken, J. T. (1991). A two-part model of stimulant action on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children. Journal of Neuropsychiatry,3,201–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meador-Woodruff, J. H., Damask, S. R, & Watson, S. J., Jr. (1994). Differential expression of autoreceptors in the ascending dopamine systems of the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 8297–8301.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mefford, I. N., & Potter, W. Z. (1989). A neuroanatomical and biochemical basis for attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity in children: A defect in tonic adrenaline mediated inhibition of locus coeruleus stimulation. Medical Hypotheses,29,33–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mink, J., & Thach, T. (1993). Basal ganglia intrinsic circuits and their role in behavior. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 3, 950–957.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Modell, J. G., Mountz, J. M., Curtis, G. C., & Greden, J. F. (1989). Neurophysiologic dysfunction in basal ganglia/limbic striatal and thalamocortical circuits as a pathogenetic mechanism of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 1, 27–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moisan, M. P., Courvoisier, H., Bihoreau, M. T., Gauguier, D., Hendley, E. D., Lathrop, M., James, M. R., & Mormède, P. (1996). A major quantitative trait locus influences hyperactivity in the WKHA rat. Nature Genetics, 14, 471–473.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nasrallah, H. A., Loney, J., Olson, S. C., McCalley-Whitters, M., Kramer, J., & Jacoby, C. G. (1986). Cortical atrophy in young adults with a history of hyperactivity in childhood. Psychiatry Research,17,241–246.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nestler, E. J., & Aghajanian, G. K. (1997). Molecular and cellular basis of addiction. Science,278,58–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Swanson, J. M., & Hinshaw, S. P. (1997). Covert visual spatial attention in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Lateral effects, methylphenidate response and results for parents. Neuropsychologia, 35, 165–176.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Odell, J. D., Warren, R. P., Warren, W. L., Burger, R. A., & Maciulis, A. (1997). Association of genes within the major histocompatibility complex with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychobiology,35, 181–186.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parent, A. (1990). Extrinsic connections of the basal ganglia. Trends in Neuroscience, 13, 254–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peciña, S., Berridge, K. C., & Parker, L. A. (1997). Pimozide does not shift palatability: Separation of anhedonia from sensorimotor suppression by taste reactivity. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior,58,801–811.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 37, 51–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., Groisser, D., & Welsh, M. C. (1993). Contrasting cognitive deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder versus reading disability. Developmental Psychology, 29, 511–523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pliszka, S. R., McCracken, J. T., & Maas, J. W. (1996). Catecholamines in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Current perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 264–272.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pontius, A. A., & Ruttiger, K. F. (1974). Frontal lobe system maturational lag in juvenile delinquents shown in Narratives Test. Adolescence, 11, 509–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porrino, L. J., & Lucignani, G. (1987). Different patterns of local brain energy metabolism associated with high and low doses of methylphenidate: Relevance to its action in hyperactive children. Biological Psychiatry,22,126–138.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Porrino, L. J., Lucignani, G., Dow-Edwards, D., & Sokoloff, L. (1984). Correlation of dose-dependent effects of acute amphetamine administration on behavior and local cerebral metabolism in rats. Brain Research, 307, 311–320.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Posner, M. I., & Dehaene, S. (1994). Attentional networks. Trendy in Neuroscience,17,75–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Post, R. M., Kotin, J., Goodwin, F. K., & Gordon, E. K. (1973). Psychomotor activity and cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites in affective illness. American Journal of Psychiatry,130,67–72.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quay, H. C. (1983). The behavioral reward and inhibition system in childhood behavior disorder. In L. M. Bloomingdale (Ed.), Attention deficit disorder: New research in attention, treatment, and psychopharmacology: Proceedings of the Third High Point Hospital Symposium on ADD (pp. 176–186). Oxford, England: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quay, H. C. (1988). Attention deficit disorder and the behavioral inhibition system: The relevance of the neuropsychological theory of Jeffrey A. Gray. In L. M. Bloomingdale & J. A. Sergeant (Eds.), Attention deficit disorder: Criteria, cognition, intervention (pp. 117–126). Oxford, England: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quay, H. C. (1997). Inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 7–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rajkowski, J., Kubiak, P., & Aston Jones, G. (1994). Locus coeruleus activity in monkey: Phasic and tonic changes are associated with altered vigilance. Brain Research Bulletin, 35, 607–616.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, J. L., Quinn, P. O., Bradbard, G., Riddle, K. D., & Brooks, E. (1974). Imipramine and methylphenidate treatments of hyperactive boys: A double-blind comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry,30,789–793.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, A. L., Abrams, M. T., Singer, H. S., Ross, J. L., & Denckla, M. B. (1996). Brain development, gender and IQ in children: A volumetric imaging study. Brain, 119, 1763–1774.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews,18,247–291.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roeltgen, D. P., & Schneider, J. S. (1991). Chronic low-dose MPTP in nonhuman primates: A possible model for attention deficit disorder. Journal of Child Neurology, 6, S82–S89

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogeness, G. A., Javors, M. A., & Pliszka, S. R. (1992). Neurochemistry and child and adolescent psychiatry. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,31,765–781.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roizen, N. J., Blondis, T. A., Irwin, M., & Stein, M. A. (1994). Adaptive functioning in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine, 148, 1137–1142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, D. R., Averbach, D. H., O’Hearn, K. M., Seymour, A. B., Birmaher, B., & Sweeney, J. A. (1997). Response inhibition abnormalities in pediatric obsessive compulsive disorder: Implications for delayed developmental maturation of fronto-striatal circuitry. Archives of General Psychiatry,54,831–838.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, R. H., & Elsworth, J. D. (1995). Biochemical pharmacology of midbrain dopamine neurons. In F. E. Bloom & D. J. Kupfer (Eds.), Psychopharmacology: The fourth generation of progress (pp. 227–243). New York: Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubinstein, M., Phillips, T. J., Bunzow, J. R., Falzone, T. L., Dziewczapolski, G., Zhang, G., Fang, Y., Larson, J. L., McDougall, J. A., Chester, J. A., Saez, C., Pugsley, T. A., Gershanik, O., Low, M. J., & Grandy,D. K. (1997). Mice lacking dopamine D4 receptors are supersensitive to ethanol, cocaine, and methamphetamine. Cell, 90, 991–1001.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saint-Cyr, J. A., Taylor, A. E., & Nicholson, K. (1995). Behavior and the basal ganglia. Advances in Neurology,65,1–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satterfield, J. H., & Braley, B. W. (1977). Evoked potentials and brain maturation in hyperactive and normal children. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 43, 43–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satterfield, J. H., Schell, A. M., & Nicholas, T. (1994). Preferential neural processing of attended stimuli in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal boys. Psychophysiology, 31, 1–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmahmann, J. D. (1996). From movement to thought: Anatomic substrates of the cerebellar contribution to cognitive processing. Human Brain Mapping,4,174–198.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, W., & Romo, R. (1990). Dopamine neurons of the monkey midbrain: Contingencies of responses to stimuli eliciting immediate behavioral reactions. Journal of Neurophysiology,63, 607–624.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, W., Apicella, P., Ljungberg, T., Romo, R., & Scarnati, E. (1993). Reward-related activity in the monkey striatum and substantia nigra. Progress in Brain Research,99, 227–235.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., Filipek, R A., Biederman, J., Steingard, R., Kennedy, D., Renshaw, P., & Bekken, K. (1994). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Magnetic resonance imaging morphometric analysis of the corpus callosum. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,33, 875–881.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, B. A., Klopper, J. H., & Gordon, J. W. (1978). Methylphenidate in 6-hydroxydopamine-treated developing rat pups. Effects on activity and maze performance. Archives of Neurology,35,463–469.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Byrne, T., Cohen, D. J., & Rothman, S. (1983). Attention deficit disorder: Quantitative analysis of CT. Neurology, 33, 1500–1503.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smalley, S. L. (1997). Genetic influences in childhood-onset psychiatric disorders: Autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Human Genetics, 60, 1276–1282.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, I. D., & Grace, A. A. (1992). Role of the subthalamic nucleus in the regulation of nigral dopamine neuron activity. Synapse, 12, 287–303.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto, M. V. (1986). Behavioral effects of low-dose methylphenidate in childhood attention deficit disorder: Implications for a mechanism of stimulant drug action. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 96–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solanto, M. V., Wender, E. H., & Bartell, S. S. (1997). Effects of methylphenidate and behavioral contingencies on sustained attention in attention-deficit hyperactiv-ity disorder: A test of the reward dysfunction hypothesis. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 7, 123–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonders, M. S., Zhu, S. J., Zahniser, N. R., Kavanaugh, M. P., & Amara, S. G. (1997). Multiple ionic conductances of the human dopamine transporter: The actions of dopamine and psychostimulants. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 960–974.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, T., Biederman, J., Wilens, T. E., Harding, M., O’Donnell, D., & Griffin, S. (1996). Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder across the life cycle. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 409–432.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. A., Szumowski, E., Blondis, T. A., & Roizen, N. J. (1995). Adaptive skills dysfunction in ADD and ADHD children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,36,663–670.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, R F., Fifield, W. J., Kennedy, M. A., Mulder, R. T., Sellman, J. D., & Joyce, R. R. (1998). No association between novelty seeking and the type 4 dopamine receptor gene (DRD4) in two New Zealand samples. American Journal of Psychiatry,155,98–101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J., Castellanos, F. X., Murias, M., LaHoste, G. S., & Kennedy, J. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and hyperkinetic disorder (HKD). Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 8, 263–271.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J. M., Sergeant, J. A., Taylor, E., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Jensen, P. S., & Cantwell, D. R. (1998). Seminar: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and hyperkinetic disorder. Lancet, 351, 429–433.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J. M., Sunohara, G. A., Kennedy, J. L., Regino, R., Fineberg, E., Wigal, T., Lerner, M., Williams, L., LaHoste, G. J., & Wigal, S. B. (1998). Association of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene with a refined phenotype of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A family-based approach. Molecular Psychiatry, 3, 38–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swedo, S. E., Leonard, H. L., Mittleman, B., Allen, A. J., Garvey, M. A., Perlmutter, S. J., Lougee, L., Dow, S. R, Zamkoff, J., & Dubbert, B. K. (1998). Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections (PANDAS): A clinical description of the first fifty cases. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 264–271.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teicher, M. H., Polcari, A., English, C. D., Anderson, C. M., Andersen, S. L., Glod, C. A., & Renshaw, P. (1996). Dose-dependent effects of methylphenidate on activity, attention, and magnetic resonance imaging measures in children with ADHD [Abstract). Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 22, 1191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thapar, A., Hervas, A., & McGuffin, P. (1995). Childhood hyperactivity scores are highly heritable and show sibling competition effects: Twin study evidence. Behavioral Genetics,25,537–544.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thatcher, R. W. (1991). Maturation of the human frontal lobes: Physiological evidence for staging. Developmental Neuropsychology, 7, 397–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thatcher, R. W. (1997). Human frontal lobe development: A theory of cyclical cortical reorganization. In N. A. Krasnegor, G. R. Lyon, & P. S. Goldman-Rakic (Eds.), Development of the prefrontal cortex: Evolution, neurobiology, and behavior (pp. 85–113). Baltimore: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voeller,K. K. (1995). Clinical neurologic aspects of the right-hemisphere deficit syndrome.Journal of Child Neurology 10(Suppl. 1)S16–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Voeller, K. K. S., & Heilman, K. M. (1988). Motor impersistence in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Evidence for right-hemisphere dysfunction CAbstract. Annals of Neurology, 24, 323–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Ding, Y. S., Fowler, J. S., Wang, G. J., Logan, J., Gatley, S. J., Hitzemann, R., Smith, G., Fields, S. D., & Gur, R. (1996). Dopamine transporters decrease with age. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 37, 554–559.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waldman, I. D., Rowe, D. C., Abramowitz, A., Kozel, S., Mohr, J., Sherman, S. L., Cleveland, H. H., Sanders, M. L., & Stever, C. (1996). Association of the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children (Abstract). American Journal of Human Genetics, 59, A25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, R. P., Odell, J. D., Warren, W. L., Burger, R. A., Maciulis, A., & Torres, A. R. (1995). Is decreased blood plasma concentration of the complement C4B protein associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1009–1014.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg, W. A., & Harper, C. R. (1993). Vigilance and its disorders. Neurologic Clinics, 11, 59–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, G., Hechtman, L., Milroy, T., & Perlman, T. (1985). Psychiatric status of hyperactives as adults: A controlled prospective 15-year follow-up of 63 hyperactive children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry,24,211–220.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wichmann, T., & DeLong, M. R. (1993). Pathophysiology of Parkinsonian motor abnormalities. In H. Narabayashi, T. Nagatsu, N. Yanagisawa, & Y. Mizuno (Eds.), Advances in neurology (Vol. 60, pp. 53–61). New York: Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wichmann, T., Bergman, H., & DeLong, M. R. (1994). The primate subthalamic nucleus: I. Functional properties in intact animals. Journal of Neurophysiology, 72, 494–506.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, G. V., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1995). Modulation of memory fields by dopamine Dl receptors in prefrontal cortex. Nature, 376, 572–575.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wise, S. P., Murray, E. A., & Gerfen, C. R. (1996). The frontal cortex-basal ganglia system in primates. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology, 10, 317–356.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (1992). International classification of diseaser (10th ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yakovlev, P. I., & Lecours, A. R. (1967). The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In A. Minkowski (Ed.), Regional development of the brain in early life (pp. 3–70). Oxford, England, & Edinburgh, Scotland: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeterian, E. H., & Van Hoesen, G. W. (1978). Cortico-striate projections in the rhesus monkey: The organization of certain cortico-caudate connections. Brain Research,139,43–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zametkin, A. J., & Rapoport, J. L. (1987). Neurobiology of attention-deficit disorder with hyperactivity: Where have we come in 50 years? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 676–686.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zametkin, A. J., Nordahl, T. E., Gross, M., King, A. C., Semple, W. E., Rumsey, J., Hamburger, S. D., & Cohen, R. M. (1990). Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset. New EnglandJournal of Medicine3.23,1361–1366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zametkin, A. J., Liebenauer, L. L., Fitzgerald, G. A., King, A. C., Minkunas, D. V., Herscovitch, P., Yamada, E. M., & Cohen, R. M. (1993). Brain metabolism in teenagers with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry,50,333–340.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zilbovicius, M., Garreau, B., Samson, Y., Remy, P., Barthelemy, C., Syrota, A., & Lelord, G. (1995). Delayed maturation of the frontal cortex in childhood autism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 248–252.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Castellanos, F.X. (1999). The Psychobiology of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. In: Quay, H.C., Hogan, A.E. (eds) Handbook of Disruptive Behavior Disorders. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4881-2_8

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4881-2_8

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-7214-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-4881-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics