Abstract
Reactions to traumatic events, their course, and their presumed etiology have been studied throughout this century (e.g., Rivers, 1918; Fraser & Wilson, 1918; Grinker et al., 1946), although it is only since these were included in an official nosology that their natural course has been studied systematically. Seventeen years following the inclusion of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the psychiatric literature, it seems worthwhile to assess what has been learned from more systematic research and which questions still remain to be answered. This chapter reviews longitudinal studies to date, outlines some of the gaps that remain in our knowledge, and suggests a possible way forward for future research.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd ed., rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Basoglu, M., Paker, M., Ozmen, E., Tasdemir, O., & Sahin, D. (1994). Factors related to long-term traumatic stress responses in survivors of torture in Turkey [see comments]. Journal of the American Medical Association, 272(5), 357–363.
Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E.J., Barton, K. A., Taylor, A. E., Loos, W. R., feJones-Alexander J. (1996). One-year prospective follow-up of motor vehicle accident victims. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(10), 775–786.
Bremner, J. D., Southwick, S. M., Darnell, A., & Charney, D. S. (1996a). Chronic PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans: Course of illness and substance abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(3), 369–375.
Bremner, J. D., Krystal, J. H., Charney, D. S., & Southwick, S. M. (1996b). Neural mechanisms in dissociative amnesia for childhood abuse: Relevance to the current controversy surrounding the “false memory syndrome.” American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(7 Suppl.), 71–82.
Breslau, N., Davis, G. C, & Andeski, P. (1995). Risk factors for PTSD-related traumatic events: A prospective analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(4), 529–535.
Burstein, A. (1989) Posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of motor vehicle accidents. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 40(3), 295–297.
Carlier, I. V., Lamberts, R. D., Fouwels, A. J., & Gersons, B. P. (1996). PTSD in relation to dissociation in traumatized police officers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(10), 1325–1328.
Carlier, I.V., Lamberts, R. D., & Gersons, B. P. (1997). Risk factors for posttraumatic stress symptomatology in police officers: A prospective. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185(8), 498–506.
Dalgleish, T. Joseph, S., Thrasher, S., Trannah, T., & Yule, W. (1996). Crisis support following the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(4), 833–845.
Davidson, L. M., & Baum, A. (1993). Predictors of chronic stress among Vietnam veterans: Stress exposure and intrusive recall. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6(2), 195–212.
Donovan, B. S., Padin-Rivera, E., Dowd, T., & Blake, D. D. (1996) Childhood factors and war zone stress in chronic PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(2), 361–368.
Eich, E. (1995). Searching for mood dependent memory. Psychological Science, 6(2) 67–75.
Feinstein, A., & Dolan, R. (1991). Predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder following physical trauma: An examination of the stressor criterion. Psychological Medicine, 21, 85–91.
Fisher, N., & Jacoby, R. (1992). Psychiatric morbidity in bus crews following violent assault: A follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 22, 685–693.
Foy, D. W., Sipprelle, R. C, Rueger, D. B., & Carroll, E. M. (1984). Etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans: Analysis of premilitary, military, and combat exposure influences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 79–87.
Fraser, F., & Wilson, R. M. (1918). The sympathetic nervous system and the “irritable heart of soldiers.” British Medical Journal, II, 27–31.
Green, B. L., Grace, M. C, & Gleser, G. C. (1985) Identifying survivors at risk: Long term impairment following the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(5), 672–678.
Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., Grace, M. C, Gleser, G. C, Leonard, A. C, Korol, M., & Würget, C. (1990). Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: Stability of stress symptoms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60(1), 43–54.
Green, B. L., & Lindy, J. D. (1994) Post-traumatic stress disorder in victims of disasters. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17(2), 301–309.
Grinker, R. R., Willerman, B., Bradley, A. D., & Fastowsky, A. (1946). A study of psychological predisposition to the development of operational fatigue. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 16, 191–214.
Hauff, E., & Vaglum, P. (1994). Chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnamese refugees. A prospective community study of prevalence, course, psychopathology, and stressors. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disorders, 182(2), 85–90.
Horowitz, M.J. (1986). Stress-response syndromes: A review of posttraumatic and adjustment disorders. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 37(3), 241–249.
Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of event scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Mediane, 41(3), 209–218.
Joseph, S., Yule, W., Williams, R., & Hodgkinson, P. (1994). Correlates of post-traumatic stress at 30 months: The Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32(5), 521–524.
Karlehagen, S., Malt, U. F., Hoff, H., Tibell, E., Herrstromer, U., Hildingsa, K., & Leymann, H.J. (1993). The effect of major railway accidents on the psychological health of train drivers II. A longitudinal study of the first year outcome after the accident. Psychosomatic Research, 57(8), 807–817.
Keane, T. M., Caddell, J. M., & Taylor, K L. (1988). Mississippi Scale for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Three studies in reliability and validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 85–90.
Kemp, A., Green, B., Hovanitz, C, & Rawlings, E. (1995). Incidence and correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder in battered women: Shelter and community samples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(1), 43–55.
Kessler, R. C, Sonega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.
Kilpatrick D. G., Best, C. L., Veronen, L. J., Amick, A. E., Villeponteaux L. A., & Ruff, G. A. (1985). Mental health correlates of criminal victimization: A random community survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(6), 866–873.
Koopman, C, Classen, C, & Spiegel, D. A. (1994) Predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms among survivors of the Oakland/Berkeley, Calif, firestorm. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(6), 888–894.
Lee, K A., Vaillant, G. E., Torrey, W. C, & Elder, G. H. (1995). A 50 year prospective study of the psychological sequelae of World War II combat. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(4), 516–522.
Malt, U. (1988). The long term psychiatric consequences of accidental injury: A longitudinal study of 107 adults. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 810–818.
Marmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A. Jordan, B. K, Kulka, R. A., & Hough, R. L. (1994). Peritraumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress in male Vietnam theater veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 902–907.
McFarlane, A. C. (1992). Avoidance and intrusion in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180(1), 439–445.
McNally, R.J., & Shin, L. M. (1995). Association of intelligence with severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(6), 936–938.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(1) 116–121.
Norman E. M., Getek, D. M., & Griffin, C. C. (1991). Post-traumatic stress disorder in an urban trauma population. Applied Nursing Research, 4(4), 171–176.
Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K., Lasko, N. B., & Herz, L. R. (1993). Psychophysiological assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder imagery in World War II and Korean combat veterans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(1), 152–159.
Perry, S., Difede, J., Musgni, G., Frances, A. J., & Jacobsberg, L. (1992). Prediction of post-traumatic stress disorder after burn injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(7), 931–935.
Putnam, F. W., Carlson, E. B., Ross, C. A., Anderson, G., Clark, P., Torem, M., Bowman, E. S., Coons, P., Chu, J. A., Dill, D. L., Loewenstein, R. J., & Braun, B. G. (1996). Patterns of dissociation in clinical and nonclinical samples. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184(11), 673–679.
Rachman, S. (1980). Emotional processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 18(1), 51–60.
Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Best, C. L., & Kramer, T. L. (1992). Vulnerability-stress factors on development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180(7), 424–430.
Rivers, W. H. F. (1918). The repression of war experiences. Lancet, February 2, 1918.
Rothbaum, B. O., Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., & Murdock, T. (1992). A prospective examination of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3) 455–475.
Shalev, A. Y. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder among injured survivors of a terrorist attack: Predictive value of early intrusion and avoidance symptoms. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180(8), 505–509.
Shalev, A. Y, Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (1993). Psychophysiologic assessment of traumatic imagery in Israeli civilian patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(4), 620–624.
Shalev, A. Y, Peri, T., Canetti, L., & Schreiber, S. (1996). Predictors of PTSD in injured trauma survivors: A prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(2), 219–225.
Shalev, A. Y, Freedman, S., Peri, T., Brandes, D & Sahar, T. (1997). Predicting PTSD in civilian trauma survivors: Prospective evaluation of self-report and clinician administered instrument. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 558–564.
Solomon, Z. (1989). Psychological sequelae of war. A 3 year prospective study of Israeli combat stress reaction casualties. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177(6), 342–346.
Southwick, S. M., Morgan, A., Darnell, A., Bremner, D., Nicolaov, A. C, Nagy, L. M., & Charney, D. S. (1995). Trauma related symptoms in veterans of Operation Desert Storm: A 2 year follow-up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(8), 1150–1155.
Spielberger, CD. (1983). Manual for state trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Sutker, P. B., Bugg, F., & Allain, A. N. (1990). Person and situation correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder among POW survivors. Psychological Reports, 66(3, Pt 1), 912–914.
Sutker, P. B., Davis, J. M., Uddo, M., & Ditta, S. R. (1995). War zone stress, personal resources, and PTSD in Persian Gulf War returnees. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104(3), 444–452.
Ursano, R. J., Fullerton, C. S., Kao, T. C, & Bhartiga, V. R. (1995). Longitudinal assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression after exposure to traumatic death. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 183(1), 36–42.
Wilson, J. P., & Kraus, G. E. (1982). Predicting post-traumatic stress disorders among Vietnam veterans. In W.E. Kelly (Ed.), PTSD and the war veteran patient. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Yehuda, R., & McFarlane, A. C. (1995). Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and its original conceptual basis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(12), 1705–1713.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Freedman, S., Shalev, A.Y. (2000). Prospective Studies of the Recently Traumatized. In: Shalev, A.Y., Yehuda, R., McFarlane, A.C. (eds) International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma. Springer Series on Stress and Coping. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4177-6_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4177-6_18
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6873-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-4177-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive