Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Arterial Chemoreceptors pp 109–122Cite as

The Role of Arterial Chemoreceptors in Ventilatory Acclimatization to Hypoxia

  • Chapter

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((AEMB,volume 360))

Abstract

Mechanisms of ventilatory control responsible for increased breathing on ascent to altitude have been the object of great interest to respiratory physiologists for many generations (cf. Kellogg, 1977). On exposure to a hypoxic environment there is a time dependent progressive rise in ventilation which is commonly termed ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia (VAH). This paper will explore findings associated with VAH, but will not deal with mechanisms of ventilatory control in very long-term residents or natives of high altitude. Previously there was a strong focus on central medullary chemoreceptors as the source for increased ventilatory drive during VAH, but evidence (to be briefly reviewed below) has failed to support this view. Increasing evidence has accumulated suggesting that peripheral chemoreceptors constitute a primary site of ventilatory drive in VAH. The research findings relevant to the role of the peripheral chemoreceptors (carotid body) will be the focus of this chapter. The reader is referred to another recent review of this topic (Weil, 1991).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Aaron, E.A. & Powell, F.L. (1993). Effect of chronic hypoxia on hypoxic ventilatory response in awake rats. J. Appl. Physiol. 74:1635–1640.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bascom, D.A., Clement, I.D., Cunningham, DA., Painter, R., Robbins, P.A. (1990). Changes in peripheral chemoreflex sensitivity during sustained, isocapnic hypoxia. Respir. Physiol. 82:161–176.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berkenbosch, A., Dahan, A., DeGoede, J., Olievier, I.C.W. (1992). The ventilatory response to CO2 of the peripheral and central chemoreflex loop before and after sustained hypoxia in man. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 456:71–83.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bisgard, G.E., Busch, M.A., Daristotle, L., Berssenbrugge, A., Forster, H.V. (1986a). Carotid body hypercapnia does not elicit ventilatory acclimatization in goats. Respir. Physiol. 65:113–125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bisgard, G.E., Busch, M.A., Forster, H.V. (1986b). Ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia is not dependent on cerebral hypocapnic alkalosis. J. Appl. Physiol. 60:1011–1015.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bisgard, G.E., Kressin, N.A., Nielsen, A.M., Daristotle, L., Smith, CA., Forster, H.V. (1987). Dopamine blockade alters ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia in goats. Respir. Physiol. 69:245–255.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouverot, P., &Bureau, M. (1975). Ventilatory acclimatization and CSF acid-base balance on carotid chemodenervated dogs at 3,550 m. Pflügers Arch. 361:17–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Busch, M.A., Bisgard, G.E., Forster, H.V. (1985). Ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia is not dependent on arterial hypoxemia. J. Appl. Physiol. 58:1874–1880.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Busch, MA, Mesina, J., Forster, H.V., Bisgard, G.E. (1983). The effects of unilateral carotid body excision on ventilatory control in goats. Respir. Physiol. 54:353–361.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, H., Kou, Y.R., Prabhakar, N.R. (1991). Absence of chemoreceptor inhibition by alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonist in cats exposed to low PO2. FASEB J. 5:A1118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cao, K-Y., Zwillich, C.W., Berthon-Jones, M, Sullivan, C.E. (1992). Increased normoxic ventilation induced by repetitive hypoxia in conscious dogs. J. Appl. Physiol. 1992; 73:2083–2088.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cruz, J.C., Reeves, J.T., Grover, R.F., Maher, J.T., McCullough, R.E., Denniston, J.C. (1980). Ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude is prevented by CO2 breathing. Respir. 39:121–130.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, D.G. (1978). Evidence for cerebral extracellular fluid [H+] as a stimulus during acclimatization to hypoxia. Respir. Physiol. 32:167–182.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, J.A., &Forster, H.V. (1982). Mediation of ventilatory adaptations. Physiol. Rev. 62:262–346.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, J.A., Forster, H.V., Bisgard, G.E., Chosy, L.W., Hanson, P.G., Kiorpes, A.L., Pelligrino, D.A. (1979). Role of cerebrospinal fluid [H+] in ventilatory deacclimatization from chronic hypoxia. J.Clin. Invest. 64:199–205.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, J.A., Forster, H.V., Birnbaum, M.L., Reddan, W.G., Thoden, J., Grover, R.F., Rankin, J. (1972). Control of exercise hyperpnea under varying durations of exposure to moderate hypoxia. Respir. Physiol. 16:213–231.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, J.A., Forster, H.V., DoPico, G.A. (1974). Ventilatory acclimatization to moderate hypoxemia in man. The role of spinal fluid [H+]. J. Clin. Invest. 53:1091–1100.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, J.A., Forster, H.V., Gledhill, N., DoPico, G.A. (1975). Effects of moderate hypoxemia and hypocapnia on CSF [H+] and ventilation in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 38:665–674.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Easton, P.A., &Anthonisen, N.R. (1988). Ventilatory response to sustained hypoxia after pretreatment with aminophylline. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:1445–1450.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Easton, P.A., Slykerman, L.J., Anthonisen, N.R. (1986). Ventilatory response to sustained hypoxia in normal adults. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:906–911.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Easton, P.A., Slykerman, L.J., Anthonisen, N.R. (1988a). Recovery of the ventilatory response to hypoxia in normal adults. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:521–528.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eger E.I.,II, Kellogg, R.H., Mines, A.H., Lima-Ostos, M., Morrill, C.G., Kent, D.W. (1968). Influence of CO2 on ventilatory acclimatization to altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 24:607–615.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eldridge, F.L., Millhorn, D.E., Kiley, J.P. (1985). Antagonism by theophylline of respiratory inhibition induced by adenosine. J. Appl. Physiol. 59:1428–1433.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Engwall, M.J.A., &Bisgard, G.E. (1990). Ventilatory responses to chemoreceptor stimulation after hypoxic acclimatization in awake goats. J. Appl. Physiol. 69:1236–1243.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Engwall, M.J.A., Vidruk, E.H., Nielsen, A.M., Bisgard, G.E. (1988). Response of the goat carotid body to acute and prolonged hypercapnia. Respir. Physiol. 74:335–344.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fencl, V., Gabel, R.A., Wolfe, D. (1979). Composition of cerebral fluids in goats adapted to high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 47:508–513.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fordyce, W.E. &Tenney, S.M. (1984). Role of the carotid bodies in ventilatory acclimation to chronic hypoxia by the awake cat. Respir. Physiol. 58:207–221.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forster, H.V., Bisgard, G.E., Klein, J.P. (1981). Effect of peripheral chemoreceptor denervation on acclimatization of goats during hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 50:392–398.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forster, H.V., Bisgard, G.E., Rasmussen, B., Orr, J.A., Buss, D.D., Manohar, M. (1976). Ventilatory control in peripheral chemoreceptor-denervated ponies during chronic hypoxemia. J. Appl. Physiol. 41:878–885.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forster, H.V., Dempsey, J.A. (1981). Ventilatory adaptations. In “Lung Biology in Health and Disease. Regulation of Breathing.” T. Hornbein, ed. Dekker, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forster, H.V., Dempsey, J.A., Birnbaum, M.L., Reddan, W.G., Thoden, J., Grover, R.F., Rankin, J. (1971). Effect of chronic exposure to hypoxia on ventilatory response to CO2 and hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 31:586–592.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forster, H.V., Dempsey, J.A., Chosy, L.W. (1975). Incomplete compensation of CSF [H+] in man during acclimatization to high altitude (4,300 m). J. Appl. Physiol. 38:1067–1072.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forster, H.V., Dempsey, J.A., Vidruk,E., DoPico, G.A. (1974). Evidence of altered regulation of ventilation during exposure to hypoxia. Respir. Physiol. 20:379–392.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forster, H.V., Soto, R.J., Dempsey, J.A., Hosko, M.J. (1975). Effect of sojourn at 4,300 m altitude on electroencephalogram and visual evoked response. J. Appl. Physiol. 39:109–113.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallman, E.A. &Millhorn, D.E. (1988). Two long-lasting central respiratory responses following acute hypoxia in glomectomized cats. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 395:333–347.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, S.V., Schoene, R.B., Haynor, D., Trimble, B., Swenson, E.R., Morrison, J.B., Banister, E.J. (1992). Brain tissue pH and ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 72:58–63.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanbauer, I., Karoum, F., Hellstrom, S., Lahiri, S. (1981). Effects of hypoxia lasting up to one month on the catecholamine content in rat carotid body. Neurosci. 6:81–86.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, S.Y., Alexander, J.K., Grover, R., Maher, J.T., McCullough, R.E., McCullough, R.G., Moore, L.G., Sampson, J.B., Weil, J.V., Reeves, J. V. (1984). Hypocapnia and sustained hypoxia blunt ventilation on arrival at high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 56:602–606.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kellogg, R.H. (1977). Oxygen and carbon dioxide in the regulation of respiration. Fed. Proc. 36:1658–1663.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kou, Y.R., Ernsberger, P., Cragg, P.A., Cherniack, N.S., Prabhakar, N.R. (1991). Role of alpha-2 adrenergic receptors in the carotid body response to isocapnic hypoxia. Respir. Physiol. 83:353–364.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lahiri, S., Smatresk, N., Pokorski, M., Barnard, P., Mokashi, A. (1983). Efferent inhibition of carotid body chemoreception in chronically hypoxic cats. Amer. J. Physiol. 245:R678-R683.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lahiri, S., Smatresk, N., Pokorski, M., Barnard, P., Mokashi, A., McGregor, K.H. (1984). Dopaminergic efferent inhibition of carotid body chemoreceptors in chronically hypoxic cats. Amer. J. Physiol. 247:R24–R28.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millhorn, D.E., Eldridge, F.L., Waldrop, T.G.(1980a). Prolonged stimulation of respiration by a new central neural mechanism. Respir. Physiol. 41:87–103.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millhorn, D.E., Eldridge, F.L., Waldrop, T.G. (1980b). Prolonged stimulation of respiration by endogenous central serotonin. Respir. Physiol. 42:171–188.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore ,L.G., Cymerman ,A., Huang, S.Y., McCullough, R.E., McCullough, R.G., Rock, P.B., Young, A., Young, P., Weil, J.V., Reeves, J.T. (1987). Propranolol blocks metabolic rate increase but not ventilatory acclimatization to 4300 m. Respir. Physiol. 70:195–204.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Musch, T.I., Dempsey, J.A., Smith, C.A., Mitchell, G.S., Bateman, N.T. (1983). Metabolic acids and [H+] regulation in brain tissue during acclimatization to chronic hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 55:1486–1495.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, A.M., Bisgard, G.E., Vidruk, E.H. (1988). Carotid chemoreceptor activity during acute and sustained hypoxia in goats. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:1796–1802.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, E.B.,Jr. (1987). Ventilatory adaptation to hypoxia occurs in serotonin-depleted rats. Respir. Physiol.69:227–235.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, E.B.,Jr. &Dempsey, J. (1978). Rat as a model for human-like ventilatory adaptation to chronic hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 44:763–769.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, E.B., Jr., Vidruk, E.H., Dempsey, J.A. (1988). Carotid body excision significantly changes ventilatory control in awake rats. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:666–671.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, E.B.,Jr., Vidruk, E.H., McCrimmon, D.R., Dempsey, J.A. (1983). Monoamine neurotransmitter metabolism during acclimatization to hypoxia in rats. Respir. Physiol. 54:79–96.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Regan, R.G. &Majcherczyk, S. (1983) Control of peripheral chemoreceptors by efferent nerves. In “Physiology of the Peripheral Arterial Chemoreceptors”., H. Acker &R.G. O’Regan., eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 257–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orr, J.A., Bisgard, G.E., Forster, H.V., Buss, D.D., Dempsey, J.A., Will, J.A. (1975). Cerebrospinal fluid alkalosis during high-altitude sojourn in unanesthetized ponies. Respir. Physiol. 25:23–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ou, L.C., Chen, J., Fiore, E., Leiter, J.C., Brinck-Johnsen, T., Birchard, G.F., Clemons, G., Smith, R.P. (1992). Ventilatory and hematopoietic responses to chronic hypoxia in two rat strains. J. Appl. Physiol. 72:2354–2363.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ou, L.C., St. John, W.M., Tenney, S.M. (1983). The contribution of central mechanisms rostral to the pons in high altitude ventilatory acclimatization. Respir. Physiol. 54:343–351.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pequignot, J.M., Cottet-Emard, J.M., Dalmaz, Y., Peyrin, L. (1987). Dopamine and norepinephrine dynamics in rat carotid body during long-term hypoxia. J. Auton. Nerv. Sys. 21:9–14.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pequignot, J.M., Dalmaz, Y., Claustre, J., Cottet-Emard, J.M., Borghini, N., Peyrin, L. (1991). Preganglionic sympathetic fibres modulate dopamine turnover in rat carotid body during long-term hypoxia. J. Auton. Nerv. Sys. 32:243–250.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pizarro, J., Warner, M.M., Ryan, M.L., Mitchell, G.S., Bisgard, G.E. (1992). Intracarotid norepinephrine infusions inhibit ventilation in goats. Respir. Physiol. 90:299–310.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, M.L., Hedrick, M.S., Pizarro, J., Bisgard, G.E. (1993a). Carotid body noradrenergic sensitivity in ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia. Respir. Physiol. 92:77–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, M.L., Hedrick, M.S., Pizarro, J., Li, Q., Bisgard, G.E. (1993b). Ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia does not require sympathetic innervation to the carotid body in awake goats. FASEB J. 7:A396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sato, M., Severinghaus, J.W., Powell, F.L., Xu, F-D., Spellman, M.J.,Jr. (1992). Augmented hypoxic ventilatory response in men at altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 73:101–107.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmeling, W.T., Forster, H.V., Hosko, M.J. (1977). Effect of sojourn at 3200 m altitude on spinal reflexes in young adult males. Aviat. Space. Environ. Med. 48:1039–1045.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schoene, R.B., Lahiri, S., Hackett, P.H., Peters, R.M.,Jr., Milledge, J.S., Pizzo, C.J., Sarnquist, F.H., Boyer, S.J., Graber, D.J., Maret, K.H., West, J.B. (1984). Relationship of hypoxic ventilatory response to exercise performance on Mount Everest. J. Appl. Physiol. 56: 1478–1483.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schoene, R.B., Roach, R.C., Hackett, P.H., Sutton, J.R., Cymerman, A., Houston, C.S. (1990). Operation everest II: ventilatory adaptation during gradual decompression to extreme altitude. Med. Sci. Sports. Exer. 22:804–810.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serebrovskaya, T.V. &Ivashkevich, A.A. (1992). Effects of a 1-yr stay at altitude on ventilation, metabolism, and work capacity. J. Appl. Physiol. 73:1749–1755.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Severinghaus, J.W., Mitchell, R.A., Richardson, B.W., Singer, M.M. (1963). Respiratory control at high altitude suggesting active transport regulation of CSF pH. J. Appl. Physiol. 18:1155–1166.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C.A., Bisgard, G.E., Nielsen, A.M., Daristotle, L., Kressin, N.A., Forster, H.V., Dempsey, J.A. (1986). Carotid bodies are required for ventilatory acclimatization to chronic hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 60:1003–1010.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tatsumi, K., Pickett, C.K., Weil, J.V. (1992a). Effects of haloperidol and domperidone on ventilatory roll off during sustained hypoxia in cats. J. Appl. Physiol. 72:1945–1952.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tatsumi, K., Pickett, C.K., Weil, J.V. (1992b). Possible role of dopamine in ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 145:A677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vizek. M., Pickett, C.K., Weil, J.V. (1987). Increased carotid body hypoxic sensitivity during acclimatization to hypobaric hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:2403–2410.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weil, J.V. (1991). Control of ventilation in chronic hypoxia: role of peripheral chemoreceptors. In “Response and Adaptation to Hypoxia, Organ to Organelle”. Lahiri, S., Cherniack, N.S., &Fitzgerald ,R.S., eds.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiskopf, R.B., Gabel, R.A., Fencl, V. (1976). Alkaline shift in lumbar and intracranial CSF in man after 5 days at high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 41:93–97.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weizhen, N., Engwall, M.J.A., Daristotle, L., Pizarro, J., Bisgard, G.E. (1992). Ventilatory effects of prolonged systemic (CNS) hypoxia in awake goats. Respir. Physiol. 87:37–48.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West, J.B. (1988). Rate of ventilatory acclimatization to extreme altitude. Respir. Physiol. 74: 323–333.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West, J.B. (1991). Acclimatizaton and Adaptation: Organ to Cell. In “Response and Adaptation to Hypoxia, Organ to Organelle”. Lahiri, S., Cherniack, N.S., &Fitzgerald, R.S., eds.

    Google Scholar 

  • West, J.B., Hackett, P.H., Maret, K.H., Milledge, J.S., Peters, R.M. Jr., Pizzo, C.J. Winslow, R.M. (1983). Pulmonary gas exchange on the summit of Mount Everest. J. Appl. Physiol. 55:678–687.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • White, D.P., Gleeson, K., Pickett, C.K., Rannels, A.M., Cymerman, A., Weil, J.V. (1987). Altitude acclimatization: influence on periodic breathing and chemoresponsiveness during sleep. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:401–412.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, F., Sato, M., Spellman, M.J.,Jr., Mitchell, R.A., Severinghaus, J.W. (1992). Topography of cat medullary ventral surface hypoxic acidification. J. Appl. Physiol. 73:2631–2637.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, F.D., Spellman, M.J.,Jr., Sato, M., Baumgartner, J.E., Ciricillo, S.F., Severinghaus, J.W. (1991). Anomalous hypoxic acidification of medullary ventral surface. J. Appl. Physiol. 71:2211–2217.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA

    Gerald E. Bisgard

Authors
  1. Gerald E. Bisgard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

    Ronan G. O’Regan  & Philip Nolan  & 

  2. University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, Scotland

    Daniel S. McQueen

  3. University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    David J. Paterson

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bisgard, G.E. (1994). The Role of Arterial Chemoreceptors in Ventilatory Acclimatization to Hypoxia. In: O’Regan, R.G., Nolan, P., McQueen, D.S., Paterson, D.J. (eds) Arterial Chemoreceptors. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 360. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2572-1_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2572-1_10

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6099-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-2572-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation