Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Appearance Profile Analysis and Sensory Scales

  • Chapter
Food Colour and Appearance

Abstract

It is not until a product is viewed in a disciplined way that the appearance and visually apparent defects can be quickly and properly defined. Often, it is not until then that consistent control can be achieved, or development and research into product appearance can progress. The overall appearance of a food is multidimensional. Sometimes only one visual attribute is important to the successful development or production of a product, but more often a complex situation occurs. As well as having a size and shape, a product may be of more than one colour, perhaps more than one translucency, gloss, or surface irregularity. A product’s success may depend on a complex mix of visual attributes. It is therefore surprising that no appearance profile system has been suggested to deal with this situation. Perhaps the reason is that the pointing finger helps to communicate the presence of an appearance attribute or defect. The pointing finger, however, is not good at describing attributes such as aroma, flavour, or texture. Hence a disciplined verbal framework is needed to describe such properties. A disciplined approach of appearance analysis has now become necessary to aid development in a market place of greater competition, more designer products, and greater numbers of more selective consumers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

bl]References

  • Abend C J (1973) Product appearance as communication. In Sensory Evaluation of Appearance of Materials, eds R S Hunter, P N Martin [American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) STP 545] 35-53

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams R H (1977) Colour grade tomatoes for higher returns. Queensland Agric J 103, 337–339

    Google Scholar 

  • Anon (1964) Green-tinge in sultanas. Food Tech in Australia 16, 701

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong N A, March G A (1974) Quantitative assessment of surface mottling of colored tablets. J Pharm Sci 63, 126–129

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arthey V D (1975) Quality of Horticultural Products [London: Butterworths]

    Google Scholar 

  • ASTM (1980) Standard Method of Specifying Color by the Munsell System. ASTM D 1535-1580

    Google Scholar 

  • Barbiroli Giancarlo (1967) La misura del colore del caffe crudo secondo 1a CIE. Quaderni di Merceologia 6, 79–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Barbiroli Giancarlo, Biino Luciano, Garutti M Antonietta (1969) La misura del colore del cacao secondo 1a CIE. Quaderni di Merceologia 8, 71–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry B W, Civille G V (1986) Development of a texture profile panel for evaluating restructured beef steaks varying in meat particle size. J Sensory Stud 1, 15–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt Margaret A, Skinner Elaine Z, Coleman John A (1963) Texture Profile Method. J Food Sci 28, 404–409

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campden (1969) Quick freezing quality requirements of Brussels sprouts. Fruit and Vegetable Preservation Research Association, Chipping Campden, Tech Memo No 91

    Google Scholar 

  • Campden (1984) Visual can defects. Campden Food and Drink Research Association, Tech Memo No 10

    Google Scholar 

  • Campden (1988) Imported Canned Food Specification—Whole Peeled Tomatoes

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlin D G (1992) Macbeth-Munsell Disk Colorimeter sales literature.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chubey B, Walkof C (1971) A color chart for estimating potato chip color. Can Inst Food Tech J 4, 136

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark Ross C (1990) Flavour and texture factors in model gel systems. Food Tech Int Europe 271-277

    Google Scholar 

  • COA (1988) Export Control Orders (Tomatoes) ECO no. 14

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross H R, Abraham H C, Knapp Eunice M (1975) Variations in the amount, distribution and texture of intramuscular fat within muscles of the beef carcass. J Animal Sci 41, 1618–1626

    Google Scholar 

  • Delewiche M J, Baumgardner R A (1985) Ground color as a peach maturity index. J Am Soc Hort Sci 110, 53–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhanaraj, S, Krishnaprakash M S, Arvindaprasad B, Ananthakrishna S M, Krishnaprasad C A, Narasimham P (1986) Effect of orchard elevation on maturity and quality of apples. J Food Qual 9, 129–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon Timothy J, Hobson Graeme E (1984) A general method for the instrumental assessment of the colour of tomato fruit during ripening. J Sci Food Agric 35, 1277–1281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolan K D, Singh R P, Wells J H (1985) Evaluation of time temperature related quality changes in ice cream during storage. J Food Proc & Pres 9, 253–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FDA (1987) Regulations for Canned Tuna. 21CFRCh.l (4-1-1987 edition) 386

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox B, Hilditch J F, Theobald D J, White G W (1978) Measurement of the colour of milked tea liquors. In Food Colour and Appearance Conference, Proceedings of a Colour Group (GB) Symposium, University of Surrey 36-40

    Google Scholar 

  • Francis F J, Clydesdale F M (1975) Food Colorimetry Theory and Applications [Westport Conn: Avi]

    Google Scholar 

  • Galvez Flor Crisanta F, Resurreccion Anna V A (1990) Comparison of three descriptive scaling methods for the sensory evaluation of noodles. J Sensory Stud 5, 251–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gnanasekharan V, Shewfelt R L, Chinnan M S (1992) Detection of color changes in green vegetables. J Food Sci 57, 149–154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goose Peter G (1978) Colour in tomato products and its value as an index of quality. In Food Colour and Appearance, Proceedings of a Colour Group (GB) Symposium, University of Surrey 41-45

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez G R, Gutierrez Rosales F (1986) Quick method for defining and classifying the colour of virgin olive oils. Grasas y Acietes 37, 282–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale W N (1986) AIC Annotated Bibliography on Color Order Systems; Report of Committee E-12 [Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials]

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper Rowland (1977) Our senses and how we use them. In Proceedings of a Sensory Quality Control Conference, eds H W Symons, J J Wren [Birmingham: University of Aston] 4–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Haq A, Webb N B, Whitfield J K, Morrison G S (1972) Development of a prototype sausage emulsion preparation system. J Food Sci 37, 480–484

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatae Keiko, Yoshimatsu Fujiko, Matsumoto Juichiro J (1988) An integrated quantitative correlation of textural profiles of fish. J Food Sci 53, 679–683

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hincks M J, Stanley D W (1985) Colour measurement of the squid Illex illecebrosus and its relationship to quality and chromatophore ultrastructure. Can Inst Sci Food Sci Tech J 18, 233–241

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt M C, Hedrick H B (1977) Chemical, physical and sensory characteristics of bovine muscle from four quality groups. J Food Sci 42, 716–720

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter Richard S (1974) Objective methods for appearance evaluation. In Objective Methods for Food Evaluation Symposium Proceedings [Washington DC: National Academy of Sciences] 215–219

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter Richard S, Harold Richard W (1987) The Measurement of Appearance [New York: John Wiley]

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchings J B, Wood F W, Young R (1969) An objective colour method for the determination of tomato maturity. J Food Technol 4, 45–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackman R L, Yada R Y, Marangoni A, Parkin K L, Stanley D W (1988) Chilling injury—a review of the quality aspects. J Food Qual 11, 253–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeremiah L E, Carpenter Z L, Smith G C (1972) Beef color as related to consumer acceptance and palatability. J Food Sci 37, 476–479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones Richard, Dransfield Eric, Crosland Adrian R, Francombe Mariko A (1989) Sensory characteristics of British sausages: relationships with composition and mechanical properties. J Sci Food Agric 48, 63–85

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jungman David, Lozano Roberto D, Melcon de Bellora (1984) Measurement of color on foods—some experiences at INTI, Buenos Aires. In Review and Evaluation of Appearance, eds J J Rennilson, W N Hale Jr. ASTM STP 914, 62–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent M (1985) Water in fish—its effect on quality. In Properties of Water in Foods in Relation to Quality and Stability, eds D Simatos and J L Multon [Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff] 259–276

    Google Scholar 

  • King F J, Ryan J J (1977) Development of a color measuring system for minced fish blocks. Marine Fisheries Rev 39(2)18–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane Ralph H, Jones Sharman W (1987) Influence of fry color on quality of coated broiler thighs. J Food Qual 10, 239–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lentz C P (1971) Effect of light and temperature on color and flavor of prepackaged frozen beef. J Inst Can Tech Aliment 4, 166–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonard Sherman, Marsh G L, Tombropoulos D, Buhlert J E, Heil J R (1977) Evaluation of tomato condition in bin loads of processing tomatoes harvested at different levels of ripeness. J Food Proc & Pres 1, 55–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little Angela C (1969) Reflectance characteristics of canned tuna. Food Tech 23, 1301–1308

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeff Drs Hendricus W (1974) Instrumental colour measurement of processed spinach and other leaf vegetables. Confructa 19, 120–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Lozano Roberto Daniel (1989) Colour in foods. In Proceedings of the Sixth Congress of the International Colour Association, Buenos Aires 1115-1139

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyle Jane (1977) Visual assessment of meat products. In Proceedings of a Sensory Quality Control Conference, eds H W Symons, J J Wren [Birmingham: University of Aston] 49–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon B G, Greene B E, Davis C E (1986) Color, doneness and soluble protein characteristics of dry roasted beef semitendinosus. J Food Sci 51, 24–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon David H, McEwan Jean A, Taylor Jane M, Reynolds Margaret A (1988) Sensory quality of frozen Brussels sprouts in a time-temperature study. Food Qual and Pref 1, 37–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacAdam D L (1943) Specification of small chromaticity differences. J Opt Soc Am 33, 18–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacDougall Douglas B, Moncrieff Clive B (1988) Influence of flattering and tri-band illumination on preferred redness-pinkness of bacon. In Food Acceptability, ed David M H Thomson [London: Elsevier] 433–458

    Google Scholar 

  • Marriott N G, Phelps S K, Graham P P (1987) Restructured beef and turkey steaks. J Food Qual 10, 245–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendenhall V T (1989) Effect of pH and total pigment concentration on the internal color of cooked ground beef patties. J Food Sci 54, 1–2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller Byron S, Trimbo Henry B (1965) Gelatinization of starch and white layer cake quality. Food Tech 19, 640–648

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller M F, Davis G W, Williams A C, Ramsey C B, Galyean R D (1986) Effect of fat source and color of lean on acceptability of beef/pork patties. J Food Sci 51, 832–833

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller M F, Davis G W, Seideman S C, Ramsey C B, Rolan T L (1988) Effects of papain, ficin and spleen enzymes on textural, visual, cooking and sensory properties of beef bullock restructured steaks. J Food Qual 11, 321–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minguez-Mosquera M Isabel, Garrido-Fernandez Juan, Gandul-Rojas Beatriz (1989) Pigment changes in olives during fermentation and brine storage. J Agric Food Chem 37, 8–11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mohsenin N N, ed (1965) Terms, definitions and measurements related to mechanical harvesting of selected fruits and vegetables. Penn Agric Exp Sta Progress Report 257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohsenin N N (1968a) Physical Properties of Plant and Animal Materials 1 part 1 [Pennsylvania: Penn State University]

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohsenin N N (1968b) Physical Properties of Plant and Animal Materials 1 part 2 [Pennsylvania: Penn State University]

    Google Scholar 

  • Moskowitz Howard R (1985) New Directions for Product Testing and Sensory Analysis of Foods [Westport Conn: Food & Nutrition Press]

    Google Scholar 

  • Musser Jay C (1973) Gloss on chocolate and confectionery coatings. In Proceedings 21th PMC A Production Conference 46-50

    Google Scholar 

  • NMRS (1975) National Marine Fisheries Service proposed interim grade standards. Frozen minced fish blocks. SOCER part 278. Fed Register 40(50) 11729–11731

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Donoghue E M, Martin W (1988) Juice loss as a simple method for measuring integrity changes in berry fruit. J Hort Soc 63, 217–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Parizek E A, Ramsey C B, Galyean R D, Tatum J D (1981) Sensory properties and cooking losses of beef/pork hamburger patties. J Food Sci 46, 860–862,867

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reitz Carl A (1961) A Guide to the Selection, Combination and Cooking of Foods [Westport, Conn: Avi Publishing]

    Google Scholar 

  • Roe M A, Faulks R M (1991) Color development in a model system during frying—role of individual amino acids and sugars. J Food Sci 56, 1711–1713

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer F M, Cardello A V, Prell P A (1988) Consumer evaluation of the sensory properties of fish. J Food Sci 53, 12–18, 24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shewfelt R L, Myers S C, Resurreccion A V A (1987) Effect of physiological maturity at harvest on peach quality during low temperature storage. J Food Qual 10, 9–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shewfelt R L, Resurreccion A V A, Jordan J L, Hurst W C (1986) Quality characteristics of fresh snap beans in different price categories. J Food Qual 9, 77–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skrede Crete (1982) Quality characterization of strawberries for industrial jam production. J Sci Food Agric 33, 48–54

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skrede Crete, Naes Tormod, Martens Magni (1983) Visual color deterioration in blackcurrant syrup predicted by different instrumental variables. J Food Sci 48, 1745–1749

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith R F, White G W (1965) Measurement of colour in tea infusions. J Sci Food Agric 16, 205–219

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Southcott (1968) The Munsell Colour System—a food technologist’s experience. In Proceedings of a Colour Symposium, Institute of Food Science and Technology (UK) 1(5) (Dec) 7–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Speight B S (1979) Standardized Photography of Beef Carcasses [Bristol: Meat Research Institute]

    Google Scholar 

  • Spencer H W (1977) Sensory control of ice cream quality. In Proceedings of a Sensory Quality Control Conference, eds H W Symons, J J Wren [Birmingham: University of Aston] 107–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Stites C R, McKeith F K, Bechtel P J, Novakofski J (1989) Processing and sensory properties of round pork bacon. J Food Sci 54, 214–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swatland H J (1992) Relationships between Japanese pork color standards and optical properties of pork before and after storage. Food Res Int 25, 21–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Theobald D J (1977) Sensory evaluation in tea buying and blending. In Proceedings of a Sensory Quality Control Conference, eds H W Symons, J J Wren [Birmingham: University of Aston] 69–72, 76-77

    Google Scholar 

  • Tscheuschner H-D, Markov E (1986) Instrumental texture studies on chocolate—3 processing conditioned factors influencing the texture. J Text Stud 17, 377–399

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuorila H (1986) Sensory profiles of milks with varying fat contents. Lebens-Wiss u-Tech 19, 344–345

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood J C, Kissinger J C, Bell R A, White J W Jr (1974) Color stability of maple syrup in various retail containers. J Food Sci 39, 857–858

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1955) US Standard for Grades of Apple Butter. Dec 20, 1955, 20FR9609

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1957a) US Standard for Grades of Canned Apples. May 22, 1957, 22FR3535

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1957b) US Standards for Grades of Sugarcane Sirup. 22FR1707

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1959) US Standards for Grades of Sugarcane Molasses. 24FR8365

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1962) Facts About Colour. USDA File Code 131-A-105

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1963a) Standards for Canned Sauerkraut. USDA 28FR2573

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1963b) Scoring Color of Orange Juice Products with the USDA 1963 Orange Juice Color Standards. [Washington, DC: Agricultural Marketing Services]

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1964) US Standards for Grades of Canned Tomatoes. 29FR7909

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1967) US Standards for Grades of Refiners’ Syrup. 32FR8575

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1972) US Standard for Grades of Canned Green Beans and Canned Wax Beans. 37FR587

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1975) Use and Maintenance of Macbeth Lights. USDA File Code 131-A-31

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1977a) US Standards for Grades of Tomato Paste. 42FR41843

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1977b) US Standards for Grades of Fresh Tomatoes. 42FR32514

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1978) US Standards for Grades of Canned Tomato Juice. 43FR19814

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1980) US Standards for Grades of Veal and Calf Carcasses. Code of Federal Regulations Title 7, Ch 1, Pt 53, Sections 53.107-53.111

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1982a) US Standard for Grades of Apple Juice. 47FR5875

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1982b) US Standard for Grades of Canned Apple Sauce. 47FR5877

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1985) US Standards for Grades of Tomato Juice. 50FR29635

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1986) US Standards for Grades of Peeled Potatoes. 51FR21133

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1989a) US Standards for Grades of Carcass Meat. Title 7, Ch 1, Pt 54 Sections 54.102-54.107 of the Code of Federal Regulations

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1989b) Visual Aids Approved for use in Ascertaining Grades of Processed Fruits and Vegetables. File Code 105-A-15

    Google Scholar 

  • USDC (1986) US Standard for Whole or Dressed Fish. Oct 1, 1986, 51FR34990

    Google Scholar 

  • Vuilleumier Jean Paul (1969) The Roche Yolk Colour Fan—an instrument for measuring yolk colour. Poultry Sci 48, 767–779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldroup P W, Johnson Zelpha B (1974) Lack of repeatability among persons using the Roche Colour Fan to assess the shank color of broilers. Poultry Sci 53, 437–439

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wekell John C, Teeny Fuad M (1988) Canned salmon curd reduced by use of phosphates. J Food Sci 53, 1009–1013

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williams E Jay, Drexler J Stanley (1981) A non-destructive method for determining peanut pod maturity. Peanut Sci 8, 134–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang C C, Brennan P, Chinnan M S, Shewfelt R L (1987) Characterization of tomato ripening process as influenced by individual seal-packaging and temperature. J Food Qual 10, 21–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young Kenneth W, Whittle Kevin J (1985) Colour measurement of fish minces using Hunter L,a,b values. J Sci Food Agric 36, 383–392

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 6 Queens Road Colmworth, Bedford, MK44 2LA, UK

    John B. Hutchings

Authors
  1. John B. Hutchings
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hutchings, J.B. (1999). Appearance Profile Analysis and Sensory Scales. In: Food Colour and Appearance. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2373-4_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2373-4_6

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6007-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-2373-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation