Abstract
Hepatitis B viruses are DNA viruses characterized by their very small genome size and their unique replication via reverse transcription. The circular genome has been efficiently exploited, thereby limiting genome variation, and leaves no space for genes in addition to those essentially needed during the viral live cycle. Hepatitis B viruses are prototype non-cytopathic viruses causing persistent infection. Human hepatitis B virus (HBV), as well as the closely related animal viruses, most frequently are transmitted vertically from mothers to their offspring. Because infection usually persists for many years, if not lifelong, hepatitis B viruses need efficient mechanisms to hide from the immune response of the host. To escape the immune response, they exploit different strategies. Firstly, they use their structural and non-structural proteins multiplely. One of the purposes is to alter the immune response. Secondly, they replicate by establishing a pool of stable extrachromosomal transcription templates, which allow the virus to react sensitively to changes in its microenvironment by up- or downregulating gene expression. Thirdly, hepatitis B viruses replicate in the liver which is an immunopriviledged site.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
WHO, WHO Communicable Series No. 1, 1–26, 1996.
Robinson W.S. in Zakim D. and Boyer T.D. (ed.). Biology of Human Hepatitis Viruses. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp. 1171–1174, 1996.
Chisari F.V. and Ferrari C., Annu Rev Immunol 13, 29–60, 1995.
Guidotti L.G., Borrow P., Hobbs M.V., Matzke B., Gresser I., Oldstone M.B., and Chisari F.V., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93, 4589–4594, 1996.
Rothmann K., Schnolzer M., Radziwill G., Hildt E., Moelling K., and Schaller H., J Virol 72, 10138–10147, 1998.
Ganem D. in Fields B.N., Knipe D.M., and Howley P.M. (ed.). Hepadnaviridae: The Viruses and Their Replication. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, 1996, pp. 2703–2737.
Nassal M. and Schaller H., Trends Microbiol 1, 221–228, 1993.
Nassal M. and Schaller H., J Viral Hepat 3, 217–226, 1996.
Hu J. and Seeger C., Seminars in Virology 8, 205–211, 1997.
Chisari F.V., Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 206, 149–173, 1996.
Ando K., Guidotti L.G., Wirth S., Ishikawa T., Missale G., Moriyama T., Schreiber R.D., Schlicht H.J., Huang S.N., and Chisari F.V., J Immunol 152, 3245–3253, 1994.
Nakamoto Y., Guidotti L.G., Kuhlen C.V., Fowler P., and Chisari F.V., J Exp Med 188, 341–350, 1998.
Knolle P., Lohr H., Treichel U., Dienes H.P., Lohse A., Schlaack J., and Gerken G., Z Gastroenterol 33, 613–620, 1995.
Janeway C.A. and Travers P., Immunobiology. The Immune System in Health and Disease. Current Biology Ltd., London, 1998, pp. 9:1–9:46.
Dienes H.P., Hutteroth T., Hess G., and Meuer S.C., Hepatology 7, 1317–1325, 1987.
Zinkernagel R.M. and Hengartner H., Immunol Today 18, 258–260, 1997.
Oldstone M.B.A., Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 189, 1–8, 1994.
Lohr H.F., Gerken G., Schlicht H.J., Meryer zum Buschenfelde K.H., and Fleischer B., J Infect Dis 168, 1133–1139, 1993.
Guidotti L.G., Matzke B., Schaller H., and Chisari F.V., J Virol 69, 6158–6169, 1995.
Guidotti L.G., Ishikawa T., Hobbs M.V., Matzke B., Schreiber R., and Chisari F.V., Immunity 4, 25–36, 1996.
Chisari F.V., J Clin Invest 99, 1472–1477, 1997.
Jilbert A.R., Wu T.T., England J.M., Hall P.M., Carp N.Z., O’Connell A.P., and Mason W.S., J Virol 66, 1377–1388, 1992.
Kajino K., Jilbert A.R., Saputelli J., Aldrich C.E., Cullen J., and Mason W.S., J Virol 68, 5792–5803, 1994.
Guidotti L.G. and Chisari F.V., Curr Opin Immunol 8, 478–483, 1996.
Mason W.S., Cullen J., Moraleda G., Saputelli J., Aldrich C.E., Miller D.S., Tennant B., Frick L., Averett D., Condreay L.D., and Jilbert A.R., Virology 245, 18–32, 1998.
Moraleda G., Saputelli J., Aldrich C.E., Averett D., Condreay L., and Mason W.S., J Virol 71, 9392–9399, 1997.
Fourel I., Cullen J.M., Saputelli J., Aldrich C.E., Schaffer P., Averett D.R., Pugh J., and Mason W.S., J Virol 68, 8321–8330, 1994.
Onji M., Lever A.M., Saito I., and Thomas H.C., Hepatology 9, 92–96, 1989.
Foster G.R., Ackrill A.M., Goldin R.D., Kerr I.M., Thomas H.C., and Stark G.R., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88, 2888–2892, 1991.
Foster G.R., Goldin R.D., Hay A., McGarvey M.J., Stark G.R., and Thomas H.C., Hepatology 17, 757–762, 1993.
Whitten T.M., Quets A.T., and Schloemer R.H., J Virol 65, 4699–4704, 1991.
Alexander G. and Eddleston A., Lancet 1, 296–297, 1986.
Millich D.R., Jones J.E., Hughes J.L., Price J., Raney A.K., and McLachlan A., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87, 6599–6603, 1990.
Jamieson B. and R A., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85, 2265–2268, 1988.
Wisse E. and Knook D.L., Prog Liver Dis 6, 153–171, 1979.
Schönrich G., Kalinke U., Momburg F., Malissen M., Schmitt V.A., Malissen B., Hammerling G.J., and Arnold B., Cell 65, 293–304, 1991.
Limmer A., Sacher T., Alferink J., Kretschmar M., Schonrich G., Nichterlein T., Arnold B., and Hammerling G.J., Eur J Immunol 28, 2395–2406, 1998.
Cantor H. and Dumont A., Nature 215, 744, 1967.
Calne R.Y., Nature 223, 472–476, 1969.
Callery M.P., Kamei T., and Flye M.W., Transplantation 47, 1092–1094, 1989.
Gazzinelli R.T., Wysocka M., Hieny S., Scharton-Kersten T., Cheever A., Kuhn R., Muller W., Trinchieri G., and Sher A., J Immunol 157, 798–805, 1996.
Callery M.P., Kamei T., and Flye M.W., Arch Surg 125, 36–40; discussion 31–40, 1990.
Bertolino P., Trescol-Biemont M.C., and Rabourdin-Combe C., Eur J Immunol 28, 221–236, 1998.
Lohse A.W., Knolle P.A., Bilo K., Uhrig A., Waldmann C., Ibe M., Schmitt E., Gerken G., and Meyer zum Büschenfelde K., Gastroenterology 110, 1175–1181, 1996.
Rubinstein D., Roska A.K., and Lipsky P.E., J Immunol 137, 1803–1810, 1986.
Knolle P., Schmitt E., Jin S., Germann T., Duchmann R., Hegenbarth S., Gerken G., and Lohse A., Gastroenterology 116, 1428–1440, 1999.
47. Knolle P., Germann T., Treichel U., Uhrig A., Schmitt E., Hegenbarth S., Lohse A., and Gerken G., J Immunol in press, 1999.
Yoffe B., Burns D.K., Bhatt H.S., and Combes B., Hepatology 12, 187–192, 1990.
Ando K., Guidotti L.G., Cerny A., Ishikawa T., and Chisari F.V., J Immunol 153, 482–488, 1994.
Cavanaugh V.J., Guidotti L.G., and Chisari F.V., J Virol 71, 3236–3243, 1997.
Kock J., Theilmann L., Galle P., and Schlicht H.J., Hepatology 23, 405–413, 1996.
Stoll-Becker S., Repp R., Glebe D., Schaefer S., Kreuder J., Kann M., Lampert F., and Gerlich W.H., J Virol 71, 5399–5407, 1997.
Brind A., Jiang J., Samuel D., Gigou M., Feray C., Brechot C., and Kremsdorf D., J Hepatol 26, 228–235, 1997.
Protzer U., Goergen B., Hopf U., Neuhaus P., König V., Meyer zum Büschenfelde K.H., and Gerken G., J Med Virol 50, 135–144, 1996.
Mason A., Yoffe B., Noonan C., Mearns M., Campbell C., Kelley A., and Perrillo R.P., Hepatology 16, 36–41, 1992.
Rehermann B., Ferrari C., Pasquinelli C., and Chisari F.V., Nat Med 2, 1104–1108, 1996.
Penna A., Artini M., Cavalli A., Levrero M., Bertoletti A., Pilli M., Chisari F.V., Rehermann B., Del P.G., Fiaccadori F., and Ferrari C., J Clin Invest 98, 1185–1194, 1996.
Barnaba V., Franco A., Alberti A., Benvenuto R., and Balsano F., Nature 345, 258–260, 1990.
Schirmbeck R., Melber K., Kuhrober A., Janowicz Z.A., and Reimann J., J Immunol 152, 1110–1119, 1994.
Planz O., Seiler P., Hengartner H., and Zinkernagel R.M., Nature 382, 726–729, 1996.
Moskophidis D., Lechner F., Pircher H., and Zinkernagel R.M., Nature 362, 758–761, 1993.
Gallimore A., Hengartner H., and Zinkernagel R., Immunol Rev 164, 29–36, 1998.
Nowak M.A., Bonhoeffer S., Hill A.M., Boehme R., Thomas H.C., and McDade H., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93, 4398–4402, 1996.
Butz E.A. and Bevan M.J., Immunity 8, 167–175, 1998.
Pircher H., Moskophidis D., Rohrer U., Burki K., Hengartner H., and Zinkernagel R.M., Nature 346, 629–633, 1990.
Franco A., Ferrari C., Sette A., and Chisari F.V., Curr Opin Immunol 7, 524–531, 1995.
Bertoletti A., Sette A., Chisari F.V., Penna A., Levrero M., De C.M., Fiaccadori F., and Ferrari C., Nature 369, 407–410, 1994.
Bertoletti A., Costanzo A., Chisari F.V., Levrero M., Artini M., Sette A., Penna A., Giuberti T., Fiaccadori F., and Ferrari C., J Exp Med 180, 933–943, 1994.
Klenerman P. and Zinkernagel R.M., Nature 394, 482–485, 1998.
Rehermann B., Pasquinelli C., Mosier S.M., and Chisari F.V., J Clin Invest 96, 1527–1534, 1995.
Brunetto M.R., Stemler M., Bonino F., Schodel F., Oliveri F., Rizzetto M., Verme G., and Will H., J Hepatol 10, 258–261, 1990.
Carman W.F., Jacyna M.R., Hadziyannis S., Karayiannis P., McGarvey M.J., Makris A., and Thomas H.C., Lancet 2, 588–591, 1989.
Junker Niepmann M., Bartenschlager R., and Schaller H., Embo J 9, 3389–3396, 1990.
Wang G.H. and Seeger C., J Virol 67, 6507–6512, 1993.
Protzer U., Trippler M., Ohl J., Knolle P., Duchmann R., Meyer zum Buschenfelde K.H., and Gerken G., J Viral Hepat 3, 155–162, 1996.
Lok A.S.F., Akarca U., and Green S., Proc Natl Acad Sci 91, 4077–4081, 1994.
Protzer-Knolle U., Knolle P., Schiedhelm E., Meyer zum Büschenfelde K.H., and Gerken G., Arch Virol 141, 2091–2101, 1996.
Lai M., Solinas A., Mazzoleni A., Farci P., Lisci V., Porru A., Tocco A., and Balestrieri A., J Hepatol 20, 773–781, 1994.
Naumann U., Protzer-Knolle U., Berg T., Leder K., Lobeck H., Bechstein W.O., Gerken G., Hopf U., and Neuhaus P., Hepatology 26, 478–484, 1997.
Nassal M. and Rieger A., J Virol 67, 4307–4315, 1993.
Schlicht H.J., von B.A., and Theilmann L., Hepatology 13, 57–61, 1991.
Milich D.R., Chen M.K., Hughes J.L., and Jones J.E., J Immunol 160, 2013–2021, 1998.
Lamberts C., Nassal M., Velhagen I., Zentgraf H., and Schroder C.H., J Virol 67, 3756–3762, 1993.
Guidotti L.G., Matzke B., Pasquinelli C., Schoenberger J.M., Rogler C.E., and Chisari F.V., J Virol 70, 7056–7061, 1996.
Miska S. and Will H., Arch Virol Suppl 8, 155–169, 1993.
Carman W.F., Intervirology 38, 75–88, 1995.
Gunther S., Piwon N., Iwanska A., Schilling R., Meisel H., and Will H., J Virol 70, 8318–8331, 1996.
Baumert T.F., Rogers S.A., Hasegawa K., and Liang T.J., J Clin Invest 98, 2268–2276, 1996.
Okamoto H., Tsuda F., Akahane Y., Sugai Y., Yoshiba M., Moriyama K., Tanaka T., Miyakawa Y., and Mayumi M., J Virol 68, 8102–8110, 1994.
Pult I., Chouard T., Wieland S., Klemenz R., Yaniv M., and Blum H.E., Hepatology 25, 1507–1515, 1997.
Xu Z. and Yen T.S., J Virol 70, 133–140, 1996.
Gerken G., Kremsdorf D., Capel F., Petit M.A., Dauguet C., Manns M.P., Meyer Z.B.K., and Brechot C., Virology 183, 555–565, 1991.
Fernholz D., Galle P.R., Stemler M., Brunetto M., Bonino F., and Will H., Virology 194, 137–148, 1993.
Bock C.T., Tillmann H.L., Maschek H.J., Manns M.P. and Trautwein C., Gastroenterology 113, 1976–1982, 1997.
Tipples G.A., Ma M.M., Fischer K.P., Bain V.G., Kneteman N.M., and Tyrrell D.L., Hepatology 24, 714–717, 1996.
Ling R., Mutimer D., Ahmed M., Boxall E.H., Elias E., Dusheiko G.M., and Harrison T.J., Hepatology 24, 711–713, 1996.
Bartholomew M.M., Jansen R.W., Jeffers L.J., Reddy K.R., Johnson L.C., Bunzendahl H., Condreay L.D., Tzakis A.G., Schiff E.R., and Brown N.A., Lancet 349, 20–22, 1997.
Aye T.T., Bartholomeusz A., Shaw T., Bowden S., Breschkin A., McMillan J., Angus P., and Locarnini S., J Hepatol 26, 1148–1153, 1997.
Melegari M., Scaglioni P.P., and Wands J.R., Hepatology 27, 628–633, 1998.
Protzer-Knolle U. and Gerken G., Biotest Biomedical Bulletin 5, 297–299, 1997.
Carman W.F., J Viral Hepat 1, 11–20, 1997.
Carman W., Zanetti A.R., Karayiannis P., Waters J., Manzillo G., Tanzi E., Zuckerman A.J., and Thomas H.C., Lancet 336, 325–329, 1990.
Waters J.A., Kennedy M., Voet P., Hauser P., Petre J., Carman W. and Thomas H.C., J Clin Invest 90, 2543–2547, 1992.
McMahon G., Ehrlich P.H., Moustafa Z.A., McCarthy L.A., Dottavio D., Tolpin M.D., Nadler P.I. and Östberg., Hepatology 15, 757–766, 1992.
Protzer-Knolle U., Naumann U., Bartenschlager R., Berg T., Hopf U., Meyer zum Büschenfelde K.H., Neuhaus P., and Gerken G., Hepatology 27, 254–263, 1998.
Ghany M.G., Ayola B., Villamil F.G., Gish R.G., Rojter S., Vierling J.M. and Lok A.S., Hepatology 27, 213–222, 1998.
Carman W.F., Trautwein C., van Deursen F.J., Colman K., Dornan E., McIntyre G., Waters J., Kliem V., Muller R., Thomas H.C. and Manns M.P., Hepatology 24, 489–493, 1996.
Guidotti L.G., Rochford R., Chung I., Shapiro M., Purcell R., and Chisari F., Viral Clearance Without Destruction of Infected Cells During Acute HBV Infection. Science 284, 825–829, 1999.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Protzer, U., Schaller, H. (2000). Immune Escape by Hepatitis B Viruses. In: Becker, Y., Darai, G. (eds) Molecular Evolution of Viruses — Past and Present. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1707-8_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1707-8_3
Received:
Accepted:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-5688-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-1707-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive