Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to present an overview of racism and inequality as social problems in contemporary U.S. society. Recent trends in ethnic relations within the occupational, educational, socioeconomic, and health arenas will be examined with a focus on the dynamics of power and privilege among whites and people of color. Although power relations also generate inequalities for women, gays and lesbians, and people with disabilities, the primary concern of this chapter will be on diversity by race and ethnicity.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abramson, A. J., Tobin, M. S., & VanderGoot, M. R. (1995). The changing geography of metropolitan oppportunity: The segregation of the poor in U.S. metropolitan areas, 1970–1990. Housing Policy Debate, 6, 45–72.
Alba, R., & Logan, J. (1991). Variations on two themes: Racial and ethnic patterns in the attainment of suburban residence. Demography, 28, 431–453.
Alba, R., & Logan, J. (1993). Minority proximity to whites in the suburbs: An individual-level analysis of segregation. American Journal of Sociology, 98, 1388–1427.
Alexander, K. L., Cook, M. A., & McDill, E. L. (1978). Curriculum tracking and educational stratification. American Sociological Review, 43, 47–66.
Alexander, K. L., Riordan, C., Fennessey, J., & Pallas, A. M. (1982). Social background, academic resources, and college graduation: Recent evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey. American Journal of Education, 90, 315–333.
Alexander, K. L., Holupka, S., & Pallas, A. M. (1987). Social background and academic determinants of two-year versus four-year college attendance: Evidence from two cohorts a decade apart. American Journal of Education, 96, 56–80.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Amir, Y. (1969). The contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 319–342.
Banks, J. A. (1992). The history of multicultural education. In M. C. Alkin & M. A. Linden (eds.), Encyclopedia of educational research (6th ed.). New York: Macmillan Co.
Banks, J. A. (1993). Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practice. In L. Darling-Hammond (Ed.), Review of research in education (Vol. 19.). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
Banks, J. A. (1995). Multicultural education and the modification of students’ racial attitudes. In W. D. Hawley & A. W. Jackson (Eds.), Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Basch, C. E. (1987). Focus group interviews: An underutilized research technique for improving theory and practice in health education. Health Education Quarterly, 14(4), 411–448.
Bash, H. H. (1979). Sociology, race,and ethnicity: A critique of American ideological intrusions upon sociological theory. New York: Gordon & Breach.
Bean, E. D., & Tienda, M. (1987). The Hispanic population of the United States. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Bell, D. A. (1992). Faces at the bottom of the well: The permanence of racism. New York: Basic Books.
Bennett, C. E. (1995). The black population in the United States: March 1994 and 1993. In U.S. Bureau of the Census,Current Population Reports (pp. 20–480). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Bennett, C. I. (1990). Comprehensive multicultural education, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Bianchi, S., Reynolds, F., & Spain, D. (1982) Racial inequalities in housing: An examination of recent trends. Demography,19, 37–51.
Bloom, A. (1997). The closing of the American mind. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Bound, J., & Freeman, R. B. (1992). What went wrong? The erosion of relative earnings and employment among young black men in the United States. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107(1), 201–233.
Braddock, J. H. (1989). Tracking of black, Hispanic, Asian,Native American, and white students: National patterns and trends. Baltimore: Center for Research for Effective Schooling for Disadvantaged Students.
Braddock, J. H., Dawkins, M. P., & Wilson, G. (1995). Intercultural contact and race relations among American youth. In W. D. Hawley & A. W. Jackson (Eds.), Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brown, D., & Tandon, R. (1983). Ideology and political economy in inquiry: Action research and participatory research. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 19, 277–294.
Bruhn, J. G., & Rebach, H. M. (1996). Clinical sociology: An agenda for action. New York: Plenum Press.
Bursik, R. J.. (1988). Social disorganization and theories of crime and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 88, 24–42.
Carlson, S. (1992). Trends in race/sex occupational inequality: Conceptual and measurement issues. Social Problems, 39, 268–287.
Chemers, M., & Murphy, S. (1995). Leadership and diversity in groups and organizations. In M. Chemers, S. Oskamp, & M. Costanzo (Eds.), Diversity in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Chemers, M., Oskamp, S., & Costanzo, M. (Eds.). (1995). Diversity in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Chesler, M. (1994). Organizational development is not the same as multicultural organizational development. In E. Cross, J. H. Katz, E A. Miller, & E. W. Seashore (Eds.), The promise of diversity. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin.
Chess, W. A., & Norlin, J. M. (1988). Human behavior and the social environment: A social systems model. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Cook, S. W. (1985). Experimenting on social issues: The case of school desegregation. American Psychologist, 40, 452–460.
Cose, E. (1993). The rage of a privileged class: Why are middle-class blacks angry? Why should America care? New York: HarperCollins.
Cox, T. H., Jr. (1993). Cultural diversity in organizations: Theory,research, and practice. San Francisco: BerrettKoehler.
Davidson, A. L. (1994). Border curricula and the construction of identity: Implications for multicultural theorists. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 7(4), 335–349.
Davis, J. A. (1984). New money, an old man/lady and “two’s company”: Subjective welfare in the NORC general social surveys, 1972–1982. Social Indicators Research, 15, 319–350.
Delatte, A. P., & Baytos, L: (1993). Eight guidelines for successful diversity training. Training, 30, 55–60.
DuBois, W. E. B. (1961). The souls of black folk. Greenwich, CT: Facwett. (Original work published 1903)
Early, G. (Ed.). (1993). Lure and loathing: Essays on race, identity,and the ambivalence of assimilation. New York: Allen Lane Press, Penguin Books.
Efran,.J. S., Lukens, R. J., and Lukens, M. D. (1988). Constructivism: What’s in it for you? Networker, 27–35.
Eggers, M. L., & Massey, D. S. (1991). The structural determinants of urban poverty: A comparison of whites, blacks, and Hispanics. Social Science Research, 20, 217–255.
Eggers, M. L., & Massey, D. S. (1992). A longitudinal analysis of urban poverty: Blacks in U.S. metropolitan areas between 1970 and 1980. Social Science Research, 21, 175–203.
Epstein, J. L. (1985). After the bus arrives: Resegregation in desegregated schools. Journal of Social Issues, 41(3),23–43.
Essed, P. (1991). Understanding racism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Evans, S. (1980). Personal politics. New York: Vintage Books.
Farley, R., & Allen, W. R. (1987). The color line and quality of life in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Feagin, J. R. (1991). The continuing significance of race: Antiblack discrimination in public places. American Sociological Review, 56, 101–116.
Feagin, J. R., & Sikes, M. P. (1994). Living with racism: The black middle-class experience. Boston: Beacon.
Feldstein, S., & Costello, L. (Eds.). (1974). The ordeal of assimilation: A documentary history of the white working class. Garden City, NY: Anchor.
Ferguson, S. A. (1996). Towards an anti-racist social service organization. Journal of Multicultural Social Work, 4(1), 35–48.
Fernandez, J. P. (1991). Managing a diverser work force: Regaining the competitive edge. Lexington, MA: Lexington.
Fernandez, R. M., Paulsen, R., & Hirano-Nakanishi, M. (1989). Dropping out among Hispanic youth. Social Science Research, 18, 21–52.
Fligstein, N., & Fernandez, R. M. (1985). Educational transitions of whites and Mexican Americans. In G. J. Borjas & M. Tienda (Eds.), Hispanics in the U.S. economy. New York: Academic Press.
Flynn, J. (1995). Social justice in social agencies. In R. L. Edwards (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (19th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 2173–2179). Washington, DC: NASW Press.
Foner, E., & Garranty, J. (Eds.). (1991). The reader’s companion to American history. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Fong, L., & Gibbs, J. (1995). Facilitating service to multicultural communities in a dominant culture setting.Administration in Social Work, 19 (2),1–24.
Frankenberg, R. (1993). The social construction of whiteness: White women, race matters. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedogogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.
Freire, R. (1982). Creating alternative research methods: Learning to do it by doing it. In B. Hall, A. Gillette, & R. Tandon (Eds.), Creating knowledge: A monopoly,Participatory research in development. Toronto: International Council for Adult Education.
Frey, W. (1994). Minority suburbanization and continued “white flight” in U.S. metropolitan areas: Assessing the findings from the 1990 census. Research in Community Sociology, 4, 15–42.
Frey, W., & Fielding, E. (1995). Changing urban populations: Regional restructuring, racial polarization, and poverty concentration. Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research, 1, 1–66.
Friedman, N. L., & Friedman, S. S. (1993). Dviersity management: An emerging employment/consulting opportunity for sociological practitioners. Clinical Sociology Review, 11, 192–199.
Galen, M. (1994). White, male, and worried. Business Week, 50–55.
Galster, G. C., & Killen, S. P. (1995). The geography of metropolitan opportunity: A reconnaissance and conceptual framework. Housing Policy Debate, 6, 7–43.
Gaventa, J. (1988). Participatory research in North America. Convergence, 24, 19–28.
Gay, G. (1992). The state of multicultural education in the United States. In K. Adam-Moodley (ed.), Education in plural societies: International perspectives. Calgary, Alberta: Detselig.
Gerard, H. B. & Miller, N. (1975). School desegregation: A long-range study. New York: Plenum Press.
Gibson, M. (1984). Approaches to multicultural education in the U.S.: Some conceptions and assumptions. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 15(1), 94–119.
Gordon, M. M. (1964). Assimilation in American life: The role of race, religion, and national origins. London: Oxford University Press.
Grant, C. A., & Millar, S. (1992). Research and multicultural education: Barriers, needs, and boundaries. In C. A. Grant (Ed.), Research and multicultural education: From the margins to the mainstream. Bristol, PA: Falmer.
Green, J. (1995). Cultural agencies in the human services (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gutierrez, L., & Lewis, E. (1994). Community organizing with women of color. Journal of Community Practice, 1(2), 23–44.
Gutierrez, L., & Nagda, B. (1996). The multicultural imperative in human services organizations. In P. Raffoul & C. McNeece (Eds.), Future issues for social work practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Gutierrez, L., Alvarez, A. R., Nemon, H., & Lewis, E. A. (1996). Multicultural community organizing: A strategy for change. Social Work, 41(5), 501–508.
Hacker, A. (1992). Two nations: Black and white, separate, hostile, unequal. New York: Scribner’s.
Hall, B. (1981). Participatory research, popular knowledge and power: A personal reflection. Convergence, 14, 6–19.
Haller, E. J. (1985). Pupil race and elementary school ability grouping: Are teachers biased against black children? American Educational Research Journal, 22, 465–483.
Hallinan, M. T., & Teixeira, R. A. (1987). Students’ interracial friendships: Individual characteristics, structural effects, and racial differences. American Journal of Education, 95, 563–583.
Handler, R. (1991). Who owns the past? History, cultural property, and the logic of possessive individualism. In B. Williams (Ed.), The politics of culture. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Hanna, J. L. (1994). Issues in supporting school diversity: Academics, social relations, and the arts. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 25(1), 66–85.
Hasenfeld, Y. (1996). The administration of human services: What lies ahead. In P. Raffoul & C. McNeece (Eds.), Future issues for social work practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Hauser, R. M., & Phang, H. S. (1993). Trends in high school dropout among white,black, and Hispanic youth, 1973 to 1989. Madison, WI: Institute for Research on Poverty DP 1007–1093.
Hawley, W. D., Banks, J. A., Padilla, A. M., Pope-Davis, D. B., & Schofield, J. W. (1995). Strategies for reducing racial and ethnic prejudice: Essential principles for program design. In W. D. Hawley & A. W. Jackson (Eds.) Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Heath, S., & McLaughlin, M. (1993). Identity and inner city youth: Beyond ethnicity and gender. New York: Teachers College Press.
Heslan, A., & Heffner, R. (1987). Learning about bilingual, multicultural organizing. Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences, 23, 525–541.
Heyns, B. (1974). Social selection and stratification within schools. American Journal of Sociology, 79, 1434–1451.
Hoffman, D. M. (1997). Diversity in practice: Perspectives on concept, context, and policy. Educational Policy, 11(3).
Hogan, R., & Perrucci, C. C. (1998). Producing and reproducing class and status differences: Racial and gender gaps in U.S. employment and retirement income. Social Problems, 45(4), 528–549.
Hughes, D., & DuMont, K. (1993). Using focus groups to facilitate culturally anchored research. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21(6), 775–806.
Hughes, M., & Thomas, M. E. (1998). The continuing significance of race revisited: A study of race, class, and quality of life in America, 1972–1996. American Sociological Review, 63, 785–795.
Hyde, C. (1999). From good intentions to meaningful practice: Multicultural development in human service organizations. Paper presented at the 1999 CSWE-APM, San Francisco.
Hyde, C. (1998). A model for diversity training in human service agencies. Administration in Social Work, 22(4), 19–33.
Inglehart, A., & Becerra, R. (1995). Social services and the ethnic community. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Jackman, M., & Jackman, R. (1980). Racial inequalities in home ownership. Social Forces,58, 1221–1234.
Jackson, B., & Holvino, E. (1988). Multicultural organizational development. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Jargowsky, P. A. (1997). Poverty and place: Ghettos,barrios, and the American city. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Jaynes, G. D., & Williams, R. M. (1989). A common destiny: Blacks and American society. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Jiobu, R. M. (1988). Ethnicity and assimilation. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Johnson, R. (1992). Diversity training: Integral steps for bridging race, language, gender gaps. Training, 29, 801–804.
Kasarda, J. D. (1993). Inner-city concentrated poverty and neighborhood distress: 1970 to 1990. Housing Policy Debate, 4, 253–302.
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., Wittchen, H., Kender, K. S. (1989). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychology, 51, 8–19.
Kirkland, S. E., & Regan, A. M. (1997). Organizational diversity training. In C. E. Thompson & R. T. Carter (Eds.), Racial identity theory: Applications to individual, group, and organizational interventions. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kluegel, J. R. (1985). If there isn’t a problem, you don’t need a solution: The basis of affirmative action attitudes. American Behavioral Scientist, 28, 761–784.
Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities. New York: Crown Publishing.
Krivo, L. J. (1986). Home ownership differences between Hispanics and Anglos in the United States. Social Problems, 33, 318–333.
Krivo, L. J., Peterson, R. D., Rizzo, H., & Reynolds, J. R. (1998). Race, segregation, and the concentration of disadvantage: 1980–1990. Social Problems, 45(1), 61–80.
Lawson, E. J., & Pillai, V. (1999). The persistence of racism in America’s cultural diversity. In L. L. Naylor (Ed.), Problems and issues of diversity in the United States (pp. 67–86). Westport, CT. Bergin & Garvey.
Lindsley, S. L. (1998a). Communicating prejudice in organizations. In M.L. Hecht (Ed.), Communicating prejudice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Lindsley, S. L. (1998b). Organizational interventions to prejudice. In M. L. Hecht (Ed.), Communicating prejudice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Lipsitz, G. (1995). A possessive interest in whiteness: Racialized social democracy and the “white” problem in American studies. American Quarterly, 47(3), 369–385.
Loden, M. (1996). Implementing diversity. Chicago: Irwin Professional Publications.
Loden, M., & Rosener, J. B. (1991). Workforce America! Managing employee diversity as a vital resource. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin.
Logan, J., & Alba, R. (1993). Locational returns to human capital: Minority access to suburban community resources. Demography,30, 243–268.
Lyson, T. A. (1985). Race and sex segregation in the occupational structures of Southern employees. Social Science Quarterly, 66, 281–295.
Marsiglia, F. F., & Hecht, M. L. (1998). Personal and interpersonal interventions. In M. L. Hecht (Ed.), Communicating prejudice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Masemann, V. L. (1983). Cultural reproduction in the bilingual classroom. In B. Bain (Ed.), The sociogenesis of language and human conduct. New York: Plenum Press.
Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1987). Trends in the residential segregation of blacks, Hispanics, and Asians: 19701980. American Sociological Review, 52, 802–825.
Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Massey, D. S. & Eggers, M. L. (1990). The ecology of inequality: Minorities and the concentration of poverty, 19701980. American Journal of Sociology, 95, 1153–1188.
Massey, D. S., Eggers, M. L., & Denton, N. A. (1994). Disentangling the causes of concentrated urban poverty. International Journal of Group Tensions, 24, 267–316.
May, S. (1994). Making multicultural education work. Bristol, UK: Longdunn.
McEnrue, M. (1993). Managing diversity: Los Angeles before and after the riots. Organizational Dynamics, 21(3), 18–29.
Medoff, P., & Sklar, H. (1994). Streets of hope: The fall and rise of an urban neighborhood. Boston: South End Press.
Merelman, R. M. (1993). Black history and cultural empowerment: A case study. American Journal of Education, 101, 331–356.
Mincy, R. (1994). The underclass: Concept, controversy, and evidence. In S. H. Danziger, G. D. Sandefur, & D. H. Weinberg (Eds.) Confronting poverty: Prescriptions for change. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Mobley, M. & Payne, T. (1992). Backlash! Training & Development, December, 45–52.
Mondros, I., & Wilson, S. (1994). Organizing for power and empowerment. New York: Columbia University Press.
Morgan, D., & Krueger, R. A. (1993). When to use focus groups and why. In D. L. Morgan (Ed.) Successful focus groups: Advancing the state of the art (pp. 3–19). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Morrison, A. M. (1992). The new leaders: Guidelines on leadership diversity in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Morrison, A. M., & Von Glinow, M. A. (1990). Women and minorities in management. American Psychologist, 45, 200–208.
Munoz, C. (1989). Youth identity and power: The Chicano movement. London: Verso.
Murdock, S., & Michael, M. (1996). Future demographic change: The demand for social welfare services in the twenty first century. In P. Raffoul & C. McNeece (Eds.), Future issues for social work practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Musgrove, F. (1982). Education and anthropology: Other cultures and the teacher. New York: Wiley.
Niemonen, J. (1993). Some observations on the problem of paradigms in recent racial and ethnic relations texts. Teachning Sociology, 21, 271–286.
Nieto, S. (1994). Lessons from students. Harvard Educational Review, 64(4), 392–426.
Oakes, J. (1982). The reproduction of inequity: The content of secondary school tracking. Urban Review, 14,107–120.
Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Oakes, J. (1992). Grouping students for instruction. In M. Alkin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research. New York: Macmillan Co.
Oliver, M., & Shapiro, T. (1995). Black wealth/white wealth: A new perspective on racial inequality. London: Routledge.
O’Sullivan, M. J., & Lasso, B. (1992). Community mental health services for Hispanics: A test of the culture compatibility hypothesis. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 14, 455–468.
Ozawa, M. N., & Kim, T. S. (1989). Distributive effects of Social Security and pension benefits. Social Service Review, 63, 335–358.
Parcel, T. (1982). Wealth accumulation of black and white men: The case of housing equity. Social Problems, 30, 199–211.
Parcel, T., & Mueller, C. (1989). Temporal changes in occupational earnings attainment, 1970–1980. American Sociological Review, 54, 622–634.
Park, P. (1993). What is participatory research? A theoretical and methodological perspective. In R. Park, M. BrydonMiller, B. Hall, & T. Jackson (Eds.), Voices of change: Participatory research in the United States and Canada. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.
Patchen, M. (1982). Black-white contact in schools: Its social and academic effects. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.
Pech, R. (1995). Affirmative action. Vista, 26–30.
Perry, R. J. (1992). Why do multiculturalists ignore anthropologists? Chronicle of Higher Education, 52.
Piña, D. L. (1998). Providing culturally sensitive services to Latino clients: A case study of a non-profit organization. Clinical Sociology Review, 16, 67–91.
Piña, D. L., & Canty-Swapp, L. (1999). Melting multiculturalism? Legacies of assimilation pressures in human service organizations. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 26(4), 87–113.
Pinkney, A. (1993). Book review of two nations. Science & Society, 57(4), 497–499.
Pope-Davis, D. B., & Coleman, H. L. K. (1997). Multicultural counseling competencies: Assessment, education and training, and supervision. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Public Agenda Foundation. (1990). Remedies for racial inequality: Why progress has stalled, what should be done. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
Rivera, E, & Erlich, J. (1995). Community organizing in a diverse society (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Robbins, L. N., & Regier, D. A. (1991). Psychiatric disorders in America: The epidemiologic catchment area study. New York: Free Press.
Roediger, D. (1994). Towards the abolition of whiteness. New York: Verso.
Rong, X. L., & Grant, L. (1992). Ethnicity, generation, and school attainment of Asians, Hispanics, and non-Hispanic whites. Sociological Quarterly, 33, 625–636.
Rosenbaum, E. (1994). The structural constraints on minority housing choices. Social Forces, 72, 725–747.
Rosenbaum, E. (1996). Racial/ethnic differences in home ownership and housing quality, 1991. Social Problems, 43(4), 403–426.
Rothbart, M. (1996). Category-exemplar dynamics and stereotype change. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 305–322.
Rumberger, R. W. (1983). Dropping out of high school: The influence of race, sex, and family background. American Educational Research Journal, 20, 199–220.
Rynes, S., & Rosen, B. (1994). What makes diversity programs work? HRMagazine, 68–70.
Rynes, S., & Rosen, B. (1995). A field survey of factors affecting the adoption and perceived success of diversity training. Personnel Psychology, 48, 247–270.
Saleebey, D. (1991). The strengths perspective in social work practice. New York: Longman.
Sampson, R. J., & Groves, W. B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social-disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 774–802.
Sandefur, G.D. (1998). Race, ethnicity, families, and education. In H. I. McCubbin, E. A. Thompson, A. I. Thompson, & J. E. Fromer (Eds.), Resilency in Native American and immigrant families. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sashkin, M., & Burke, W. (1987). Organizational development in the 1990s. Journal of Management, 13, 393–417.
Schneider, M., & Phelan, T. (1993). Black suburbanization in the 1980’s. Demography, 30, 269–279.
Schein, E. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schlessinger, E. G., & Devore, W. (1995). Ethnic sensitive social work practice: The state of the art. Journal of Sociology and Social Work, 220, 29–57.
Schofield, J. W. (1991). School desegregation and intergroup relations: A review of the literature. In G. Grant (Ed.), Review of research in education (vol. 17). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
Schofield, J. W. (1995). Promoting positive intergroup relations in school settings. In W. D. Hawley & A. W. Jackson (Eds.). Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Scott, J. C. (1990). Domination and the arts of resistance: Hidden transcripts. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Segal, D. A., & Handler, R. (1995). U.S. multiculturalism and the concept of culture. Identities,1(4), 391–407.
Sigelman, L., & Welch, S. (1991). Black Americans’ views of racial inequality. London: Cambridge University Press.
Slavin, R. E. (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory, research,and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Slavin, R. E. (1995). Enhancing intergroup relations in schools: cooperative learning and other strategies. In W. D. Hawley & A. W. Jackson (Eds.), Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (1987). An analysis of multicultural education in the United States. Harvard Educational Review, 57(4), 421–444.
Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (1988). Making choices for multicultural education: Five approaches to race, class, and gender. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Smith, B. E. (1995). Crossing the great divides: Race, class, and gender in Southern women’s organizing, 1979–1991. Gender & Society, 9(6), 680–696.
Smith, J. P. (1995). Racial and ethnic differences in wealth in the health and retirement study. Journal of Human Resources, 30 (Suppl.), S158–S183.
Smith, J. P. & Welch, E (1984). Affirmative action and labor markets. Journal of Labor Economics, 2, 269–301.
Smith, R. A. (1997). Race, income, and authority at work: A cross-temporal analysis of black and white men (1972–1994). Social Problems, 44(1), 19–38.
Snyder, M., & Meine, P. (1994). On the functions of stereotypes and prejudice. In M. P. Zanna & J. M. Olsen (Eds.), Ontario Symposium on Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 7: The psychology of prejudice. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Solomon, C. (1991). Are white males being left out? Personnel Journal, 70(11), 88–94.
Somervell, P. D., Leaf, P., Weissman, M., Glazer, D., & Bruce, M. L. (1989). The prevalence of major depression in black and white adults in five United States communities. American Journal of Epidemiology, 130, 725–735.
Squires, G. (1994). Capital and communities in black and white. Albany: SUNY Press.
Staples, R. (1982). Black masculinity: The black male’s role in American society. San Francisco: The Black Scholar Press.
Stephan, W. G. (1978). School desegregation: An evaluation of predictions made in Brownv. Board of Education. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 217–238.
Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1996). Predicting prejudice. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 409–426.
Stephenson, K. (1994). Diversity: A managerial paradox. Clinical Sociology Review, 12, 189–205.
Sue, D. W., Fujino, D. C., Hu, L., Takeuchi, D. T., & Zane, N. W. S. (1991). Comunity mental health services for ethnic minority groups: A test of the cultural responsiveness hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychol-ogy, 59, 533–540.
Swinton, D.H. (1990). Economic progress for black Americans in the post-civil-rights era. In G. E. Thomas (Ed.), U.S. race relations in the 1980’s and 1990’s: Challenges and alternatives. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing.
Tandon, R. (1981). Participatory research in the empowerment of people. Convergence, 14, 20–29.
Tatum, B. D. (1987). Assimilation blues: Black families in a white community. New York: Greenwood.
Thomas, G. E., Alexander, K. L., & Eckland, B. K. (1979). Access to higher education: The importance of race, sex, social class, and academic credentials. School Review,87, 133–156.
Thomas, M. (1993). Race, class, and personal income: An empirical test of the declining significance of race thesis, 1968–1988. Social Problems, 40, 328–342.
Thomas, M. E., & Hughes, M. (1986). The continuing significance of race: A study of race, class, and quality of life in America, 1972–1985. American Sociological Practice, 51, 830–841.
Thomas, M. E., Herring, C., and Horton, H. D. (1994). Discrimination over the life course: A synthetic cohort analysis of earnings differences between black and white males. Social Problems, 41, 608–628.
Thomas, R. R., Jr. (1991). Beyond race and gender: Unleashing the power of your total workforce by managing diversity. New York: American Management Association.
Trennert, R. A. (1988). The Phoenix Indian school: forced assimilation in Arizona, 1891–1935. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Turner, T. (1993). Anthropology and multiculturalism: What is anthropology that multiculturalists should be mindful of it? Cultural Anthropology, 8(4), 411–429.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1994). Statistical abstract of the United States (114th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1996). Statistical abstract of the United States (pp. 229–231). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Education. (1992). Are Hispanic dropout rates related to migration? National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Labor Statistics. (1991). Employment and Earnings. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office
Velez, W. (1989). High school attrition among Hispanic and non-Hispanic white youths. Sociology of Education, 62, 119–133.
Villemez, W. (1980). Race, class, and neighborhood: Differences in the residential return on individual resources. Social Forces, 59, 414–430.
Watzlawick, P. (1984). The invented reality: How do we know what we believe we know? New York: W.W. Norton.
Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. H., & Jackson, D. D. (1967). Pragmatics of human communication. New York: W.W. Norton.
Wax, M. (1993). How culture misdirects multiculturalism. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 24(2), 99–115.
Wendell, L., Bell, C., & Zawicki, R. (Eds.). (1989). Organizational development. New York: Urwin.
Wentling, R. M., & Palma-Rivas, N. (1998). Current status and future trends of diversity initiatives in the workplace: Diversity experts’ perspective. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9(3), 235–253.
West, C. (1993). Race matters. Boston: Beacon Press.
West, G. (1990). Cooperation and conflict among women in the welfare rights movement. In L. Albrecht & R. Brewer (Eds.), Bridges of power: Women’s multicultural alliances. Philadelphia: New Society.
Wieviorka, M. (1998). Is multiculturalism the solution? Ethnic and Racial Studies, 21(5), 881–910.
Williams, D. R., Takeuchi, D. T., & Adair, R. K. (1992). Socioeconomic status and psychiatric disorder among blacks and whites. Social Forces, 71, 179–194.
Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socioeconomic status, stress, and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 335–351.
Williams, N., & Sjoberg, A. E. (1993). Ethnicity and gender: The view from above versus the view from below. In T. R. Vaughan, G. Sjoberg, & L. T. Reynolds (Eds.), A critique of contemporary American sociology (pp. 160–202). Dix Hills, NY: General Hall.
Williams, N., Himmel, K., Sjoberg, A. E, & Torrez, D. (1995). The assimilation model, family life and race and ethnicity in the United States. Journal of Family Issues, 16(3), 380–405.
Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Wilson, W. J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Wojtkiewicz, R. A. & Donato, K. M. (1995). Hispanic educational attainment: The effects of family background and nativity. Social Forces, 74(2), 559–574.
Woody, D. L. (1992). Recruitment and retention of minority workers in mental health programs. Washington, DC: National Institute of Mental Health, Human Resource Development Program.
Yates, D. L., & Pillai, V. K. (1992). Frustration and strain among Fort Worth police officers. Sociology and Social-Research, 76(3), 145–149.
Zeichner, K. M. (1995). Preparing educators for cross-cultural teaching. In W. D. Hawley & A. W. Jackson (Eds.) Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2001 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Piña, D.L. (2001). Racism and Diversity in U.S. Society. In: Rebach, H.M., Bruhn, J.G. (eds) Handbook of Clinical Sociology. Clinical Sociology: Research and Practice. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1217-2_17
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1217-2_17
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-5445-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-1217-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive