Skip to main content

Empathy And Helping

  • Chapter
Altruistic Reveries
  • 106 Accesses

Abstract

Empathy is considered to be “one of the basic human attributes supportive of social life” (Hoffman, 1977a, p. 169). This makes it an attractive construct to study. Empathy has been considered to be a critical element in social understanding and in the regulation or reduction of antisocial behaviours such as aggression (Eisenberg & Miller, 1987; Feshbach, 1975; Krebs, 1970; Miller & Eisenberg, 1988). It has also been considered a useful explanatory concept for the development of altruism (Eisenberg, 1986, 1989; Batson & Coke, 1981; Krebs, 1970; Hoffman, 1975). Rushton (1995) suggested that we ought to characterize human beings as “helpful, cooperative, empathic, loving, kind, and considerate” (p. 382). Thus, it is not surprising that attempts have been made to find a biological basis for empathic tendency.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Aronfreed, J. (1970). The socialization of altruistic and sympathetic behaviour: Some theoretical and experimental analyses. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behaviour (pp. 103–106). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Barnett, M. A., Howard, J. A., Melton, E. M., & Dino, G. A. (1982). Effect of inducing sadness about self or other on helping behaviour in high-and low-empathic children. Child Development, 53, 920–923.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Barnett, M. A., King, L. M., & Howard, J. A. (1979). Inducing affect about self or other: Effects on generosity in children. Developmental Psychology, 15. 164–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Batson, C. D. (1987). Prosocial motivation: Is it ever altruistic? In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 65–122 ). New York: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  5. Batson, C. D., & Coke, J. S. (1981). Empathy: A source of altruistic motivation for helping? In J. P. Rushton & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behaviour: Social, personality, and developmental perspectives (pp. 167–211). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Batson, C. D., Early, S., & Salvarani, G. (1997). Perspective taking; Imagining how another feels versus imagining how you would feel. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin. 23 (7). 751–758.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Boring, E. G. (1929). History of experimental psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Borke, H. (1971). Interpersonal perception of young children. Developmental Psychology. 5 (2). 263–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Borke, H. (1973). The development of empathy in Chinese and American children between three and six years of age. Developmental Psychology. 9. 102–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Buck, R., & Ginsburg, B. (1997). Communicative genes and the evolution of empathy. In W. Ickes (Ed.), Empathic Accuracy. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Burns, N., & Cavey, L. (1957). Age differences in empathic ability among children. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 11. 227–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Chandler, M. J., & Greenspan, S. (1972). Ersatz egocentrism: A reply to Borke. Developmental Psychology, 7. 104–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Chang, A. (1987). Empathy: An elusive construct or an illusion? Singapore Psychologist. 3(2), 41–52.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Coke, J. S., Batson, C. D., & McDavis, K. (1978). Empathic mediation of helping: A two-stage model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 36. 752–766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Darwin, C. (1965). The expression of emotions in man and animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1872).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 44. 113–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Davis, M. H. (1994). Empathy; A social psychological approach. Brown & Benchmark: Madison, Wisconsin.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Davis, M. H., Hull, J. G., Young, R. D., & Warren, G. G. (1987). Emotional reactions to dramatic film stimuli: The influence of cognitive and emotional empathy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (1). 126–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Deutsch, F. (1974). Female preschoolers’ perceptions of affective responses and interpersonal behaviour in videotaped episodes. Developmental Psychology, 10, 733–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Deutsch, F., & Madle, R. (1975). Empathy: Historic and current conceptualization, measurement, and a cognitive theoretical perspective. Human Development, 18, 267–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Dymond, R. (1950). Personality and empathy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 4, 343–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Eisenberg, N. (1986). Altruistic emotion, cognition, and behaviour. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Eisenberg, N. (1989). New directions in child development: Empathy and related emotional responses (Vol. 44). San Francisco: Jessey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1990). Empathy: Conceptualization, measurement and relation to prosocial behaviour. Motivation and Emotion, 14 (2), 131–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1993). Prosocial behaviour and empathy: A multimethod developmental perspective. In Clark, M. S. (Ed.), Prosocial Behaviour (pp. 34–61). London: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Eisenberg, N. & Fabes, R.A. (1997). Prosocial development (Ch. 11). In N. Eisenberg (volume Ed.), Social, emotional, and personality development. In W. Damon (series Ed.), The handbook of child psychology, Vol. 3. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Eisenberg, N., & Lennon, R. (1983). Emotional displays associated with preschoolers’ prosocial behaviour. Child Development, 58, 992–1000.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviours. Psychological Bulletin, 101 (1), 91–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Eisenberg, N., & Strayer, J. (1987). Critical issues in the study of empathy. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp.271–291). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Eisenberg, N., Murphy, B. C., & Shepard, S. (1997). The development of empathic accuracy. In W. Ickes (Ed.), Empathic accuracy (pp.73–116). New York: Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Eisenberg-Berg, N., & Mussell, P (1978). Empathy and moral development in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 14, 185–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Feshbach, N. D. (1975). Empathy in children: Some theoretical and empirical considerations. The Counseling Psychologist. 5, 25–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Feshbach, N.D. (1978). Studies in empathic behaviour in children. In B.A. Maher (Ed.), Progress in experimental personality research (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Feshbach, N. D. (1980). The psychology of empathy and the empathy of psychology. Presidential address, 60th Annual Meeting of the Western Psychological Association, Honolulu, Hawaii.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Feshbach, N. D. (1982). Sex differences in empathy and social behaviour in children. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behaviour (pp. 315–338). New York; Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Feshbach, S., & Feshbach, N. D. (1986). Aggression and altruism: A personality perspective. In C. Zahn-Waxler, E. M. Cummings, & R. Iannotti (Eds.), Altruism and aggression: Biological and social origins (pp. 189–217). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  37. Feshbach, N., & Roe, K. (1968). Empathy in six-and seven-year-olds. Child Development, 39, 133–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Flavell, J. H., Botkin, P. T., Fry, C. L., Wright, J., & Jarvis, P. (1968). The development of role-taking and communication skills in children. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Gnepp, J. (1983). Children’s social sensitivity: inferring emotions from conflicting cues. Developmental Psychology, 19 (6), 805–814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Gnepp, J., & Hess, D. L. R. (1986). Children’s understanding of verbal and facial display rules. Developmental Psychology, 22 (1), 103–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Hoffman, M. L. (1975). Developmental synthesis of affect and cognition and its implications for altruistic motivation. Developmental Psychology, 11, 607–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Hoffman, M. L. (1976). Empathy, role-taking, guilt, and development of altruistic motives. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behaviour: Theory, research, and social issues (pp. 124–143). New York: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Hoffman, M. L. (1977a). Empathy, its development and prosocial implications. In C. B. Keasey (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 25, pp.169–218). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Hoffman, M. L. (1977b). Sex differences in empathy and related behaviours. Psychological Bulletin, 84 (4). 712–722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Hoffman, M. (1978). Toward a theory of empathic arousal and development. In M. Lewis & L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The development of affect (pp. 227–256). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Hoffman, M. L. (1981). Is altruism part of human nature? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 607–622.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Hoffman, M. L. (1982a). The measurement of empathy. In C. E. Izard (Ed.), Measuring emotions in infants and children (pp. 279–296). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Hoffman, M. L. (1982b). Development of prosocial motivation: Empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behaviour (pp. 281–313). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Hoffman, M. L. (1982c). Affect and moral development. In D. Cicchetti & P. Hesse (Ed.), New directions in child development (pp. 83–103). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Hoffman, M. L. (1983). Affective and cognitive processes in moral intemalization. In E. T. Higgins, D. N. Ruble, & W. W. Hartup (Eds.), Social cognition and social development: A sociocultural perspective (pp. 236–274). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Hoffman, M. L. (1984). Interaction of affect and cognition in empathy. In C. Izard, J. Kagan, & R. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotions, cognition, and behaviour (pp. 103–131). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Hoffman, M. L., & Levine, L. E. (1976). Early sex differences in empathy. Developmental Psychology, 12 (6), 557–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Hoffner, C., & Badzinski, D. M. (1989). Children’s integration of facial and situational cues to emotion. Child Development, 60, 411–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Howard, J. A., & Barnett, M. A. (1981). Arousal of empathy and subsequent generosity in young children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 138, 307–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Iannotti, R. J. (1975). The nature and measurement of empathy in children. The Counseling Psychologist, 5, 21–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Iannotti, R. J. (1978). Effect of role-taking experiences on role taking, empathy, altruism, and aggression. Developmental Psychology, 14, 119–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Iannotti, R. J. (1985). Naturalistic and structured assessments of prosocial behaviour in preschool children: The influence of empathy and perspective taking. Developmental Psychology, 21 (1), 46–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Kagan, J. (1978). On emotion and its development: A working paper. In M. Lewis and L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.). The development of affect (pp.11–42). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Katz, R. L. (1963). Empathy: Its nature and uses. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Krebs, D. (1970). Altruism — an examination of the concept and a review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 73, 258–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Krebs, D. (1975). Empathy and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32 (6), 1134–1146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Krebs, D. (1982). Altruism — a rational approach. In N. Eisenberg (Ed), The development ofprosocial behaviour (pp. 53–76). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Lipps, T. (1903/1979). Empathy, inner imitation and sense feelings. In M. Rader (Ed.), A modem book of esthetics (pp. 371–378). New York: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  64. MacLean, P.D. (1973). A triune concept of brain and behaviour. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  65. McDougall, W.(1908/1936). An introduction to social psychology. London: Methuen.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  66. Miller, P. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1988). The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behaviour. Psychological Bulletin, 103 (3), 324–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Moore, B.S (1990). The origins and development of empathy. Motivation and Emotion, 14 (2), 75–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Peterson, L. (1983). Influence of age, task competence, and responsibility focus on children’s altruism. Developmental Psychology, 19, 141–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Piliavin, J. A., Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Clark, R. D., III. (1981). Emergency intervention. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Piliavin, J. A., Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Clark, R. D., III. (1982). Responsive bystanders: The process of intervention. In V. J. Derlega & J. Grzelak (Eds.), Cooperation and helping behaviour: Theories and research (pp. 279–304). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Radke-Yarrow, M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Chapman, M. (1983). Children’s prosocial dispositions and behaviour. In P. H. Musson (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology. (Vol. 4, pp. 469–545). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Reichenbach, L., & Masters, J. C. (1983). Children’s use of expressive and contextual cues in judgments of emotion. Child Development, 54, 993–1004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Reik, T. (1948). Listening with the third ear: The inner experience of the psychoanalyst. New York: Grove.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Rogers, C. (1975). Empathic: An unappreciated way of being. The Counseling Psychologist, 2, 2–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Rushton, J. P. (1980). Altruism, socialization, and society. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Rushton, J. P. (1995). Altruism and society: A social learning perspective. In S. Zamagni (Ed.), The economics of altruism (382–403). Elgar: Great Britain.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. L. (1976). Empathic distress in the newbom. Developmental Psychology, 12, 175–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Sawin, D. B. (1979, April). Assessing empathy in children; A search for an elusive construct. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Shantz, C. U. (1983). Social-cognition. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 495–555) New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Smither, S. (1977). A reconsideration of the developmental study of empathy. Human Development, 20, 253–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Spencer, H. (1897). The principles of psychology (Vol. II). New York: D. Appleton & Company.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  83. Staub, E. (1970). A child in distress: The influence of age and number of witnesses on children’s attempts to help. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14 (2), 130–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Staub, E. (1971). A child in distress: The influence of nurturance and modeling on children’s attempts to help. Developmental Psychology, 5 (1), 124–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Staub, E. (1974). Helping a distressed person: Social, personality, and stimulus determinants. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 293–241). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Staub, E. (1978). Positive social behaviour and morality: Social and personal influences (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Stotland, E. (1969). Exploratory investigations of empathy. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 271–312). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Strayer, J. (1986). Children’s attributions regarding the situational determinants of emotion in self and others. Developmental Psychology, 22, 649–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Strayer, J. (1987). Affective and cognitive perspectives on empathy. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 218–244). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Strayer, J. (1989). What children know and feel in response to witnessing affective events. In C. Saami & P. L. Hams (Eds.), Children’s understanding of emotions (pp.259–289). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Sullivan, H. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Titchener, E. (1909). Experimental psychology of the thought processes. New York: MacMillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  93. Toi, M., & Batson, C. D. (1982). More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 281–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Wallbott, H. G. (1988). Faces in context: The relative importance of facial expression and context information in determining emotion attributions. In K. R. Scherer (Ed.), Facets of Emotion (pp. 139–159). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Wispe, L. G. (1986). The distinction between empathy and sympathy: To call forth a concept, a word is needed. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 314–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., & King, R. A. (1979). Child rearing and children’s prosocial initiations toward victims of distress. Child Development, 50, 319–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2002 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Chang, A. (2002). Empathy And Helping. In: Kapur, B.K., Chong, KC. (eds) Altruistic Reveries. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0809-0_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0809-0_6

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-5250-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-0809-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics