Abstract
In the eighth and final chapter of this book, we synthesize the main findings of our seminal study on the market for doping products in Italy and draw policy lessons for the future development of international anti-doping policy. The general aim of the study has been to analyze the production and distribution of doping products and to understand how anti-doping criminal provisions and their enforcement can contribute to the control of doping within and outside the sports worlds. In other words, given WADA and other policy-makers’ growing dissatisfaction with the traditional anti-doping athlete-focused approach, we have considered the extent to which law enforcement action and intelligence sharing between law enforcement agencies and national anti-doping organizations can become—in the words of WADA President John Fahey—as “the future of anti-doping” (UK Antidoping, 2011).
In the first part, we present the main findings of the study, by organizing them into eight topics: doping products and their harms; our estimates of the numbers of users and the size of the market; the suppliers’ main characteristics and types; the distribution chains and market relationships; the role played by organized sports world and organized crime in the supply of doping products; our estimates of the revenues of the overall market for doping products as well as the revenues and profits of the suppliers; the legislation and the institutional actors underpinning Italy’s anti-doping policy; and the latter’s outcomes and related challenges.
In the second part, we consider the extent to which our findings on Italy can be generalized to other countries by comparing them with the international literature on doping. Drawing on the findings of the present study, the international literature as well as the research on illegal drug policy and crime control, we also propose lessons for the world’s anti-doping policy-making. Our main conclusion is that criminal law enforcement has an unexploited, crucial (though limited), potential role in anti-doping. Therefore, we recommend that all countries should pass appropriate legislation on the basis of a standardized model so as to facilitate international police and judicial cooperation (and in the meanwhile exploit the equivalent offenses that already exist in most countries), provide their law enforcement agencies with the technical, institutional, and financial resources necessary to effectively investigate the problem of doping, foster the cooperation between these agencies and anti-doping organizations, and remain aware of the limits and harms of criminal law enforcement.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
For the units of measure adopted in calculating the doping doses of the different substances, see Chap. 2.
- 2.
Our estimate of the number of users of doping products is more than twice as large as the estimated number of heroin users emerging from the last population survey (98,000 people based on a 2010 past-year prevalence rate of 0.25 %; see Dipartimento Politiche Antidroga, 2011: 8).
- 3.
The official Italian name is Commissione per la vigilanza ed il controllo sul doping e per la tutela della salute nelle attività sportive (Commission for the Vigilance and Control on Doping and the Protection of Health in Sports Activities), which is shortened in CVD.
- 4.
Moreover, CVD’s data refer to positive results, whereas WADA (2011a: 1) merely reports “adverse analytical findings,” from which the cases of users with a Therapeutic Use Exemption need to be subtracted.
- 5.
See also the 2012 comparative report “Strategy for Stopping Steroids” produced by the anti-doping agencies of five EU countries (Denmark, Sweden, The Netherlands, Poland, and Cyprus) under the aegis of Anti Doping Denmark (2012: 78).
- 6.
It must be stressed that the selection process is not random: test personnel chooses the fitness center visitors to be tested who are most likely to have used drugs. The proportion of positive cases is therefore not representative of the total number of centers visitors (Anti Doping et al. 2012: 56).
- 7.
The earlier figures were stated by Holz, an Interpol officer specialized in anti-doping issues at a WADA Foundation Board Meeting in November 2010 (World Anti-Doping Agency 2010e).
- 8.
While looking for the right mix of policy interventions, policy-makers tackling the problem of doping might draw useful lessons from the history of the international drug control regime. Whereas recent history forcefully demonstrates the difficulty of reducing the demand for illegal drugs through supply-side interventions, the policy and market developments in the 1920s and 1930s indicate that these interventions heavily impact the types and modus operandi of the suppliers, wiping out the least harmful and most deterrable suppliers and thus inadvertently provoking harm. In those two decades, in fact, the League of Nations was quite effective in using the power of adverse publicity and managed to convince all the large pharmaceutical companies to reduce diversion and cut heroin production drastically. Coupled with the criminal law restrictions enforced by national governments, the League’s successful interventions transformed the market. In the early 1920s, the illicit trade in narcotics depended to a large extent on diverting legally manufactured drugs. Underworld members were typically located at the bottom of the drug-manufacturing and marketing system. In combination with manufacturers and numerous middlemen and retail outlets, they diverted a portion of the product to non-medical consumers. By the beginning of World War II, however, professional criminals were almost alone at the beginning of the process, owning clandestine factories around the world and resorting to extensive violence and corruption to promote and defend their business (e.g., Meyer and Parssinen, 1998; Paoli et al. 2009).
- 9.
Article 11, §2 merely establishes that “if more than two members of a team in a Team Sport are found to have committed an anti-doping rule violation during an Event Period, the ruling body of the Event shall impose an appropriate sanction on the team (e.g., loss of points, Disqualification from a Competition or Event, or other sanction) in addition to any Consequences imposed upon the individual Athletes committing the anti-doping rule violation.” Article 12 adds that “nothing in the Code precludes any Signatory or government accepting the Code from enforcing its own rules for the purpose of imposing sanctions on another sporting body over which the Signatory or government has authority.”
- 10.
In 2012, for example, WADA (2013b) invoiced national governments US$13,201,048 but received only US$10,613,946, thus US$2,596,102 less than expected. As the IOC pays only matching funds, WADA thus faced an unexpected loss of over $5 million dollars corresponding to about 20 % of its budget.
References
AFP. (2002). IOC cannot win doping war, says Rogge. Retrieved from http://archives.dawn.com/2002/01/01/spt14.htm
Anti Doping Denmark, Dopingautoriteit, STAD, Instytut Sportu and CyADA. (2012). Strategy for stopping steroids. Retrieved from http://www.antydoping.pl/upload/2012/strategy_for_stopping_steroids_report_web.pdf
Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority. (2012). 2010:11 Annual Report. Retrieved from http://www.asada.gov.au/publications/annual_reports/asada_annual_report_2010_11/downloads/ASADA_annual_report_2010_11.pdf
Ayres, I., & Braithwaite, J. (1992). Responsive regulation: Transcending the deregulation debate. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bette, K. (2008). Doping im Leistungssport—zwischen individueller Schuld und kollektiver Verantwortung. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin, 59(1), 5–11.
Bette, K. (2011). Sportsoziologische Aufklärung: Studien zum Sport der modernen Gesellschaft. Bielefeld: transcript.
Bette, K., & Schimank, U. (2000). Doping als Konstellationsprodukt. Eine soziologische Analyse. In: M. Gamper, J. Mühlethaler, & F. Reidhaar (Eds.), Doping. Spitzensport als gesellschaftliches problem (pp. 91–112). Zürich: NZZ.
Braithwaite, J. (2011). Fasken lecture: The essence of responsive regulation. 44 U.B.C. L. Review: 475–520.
Brissonneau, C. (2007). Le dopage dans le cyclisme professionnel au milieu des années 1990: une reconstruction des valeurs sportives. Déviance et Société, 2, 129–148.
Coackley, J., & Pipe, E. (2009). Sport in society: Issues and controversies. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano. (2012). Dati statistici. Retrieved from http://www.coni.it/index.php?dati_statistici.;http://www.coni.it/fileadmin/_temp_/coni/pdf/controlli_statistici_1987_2000.pdf
Courtwright, D. T. (2001). Forces of habit: Drugs and the making of the modern world. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
De Hon, O., & van Kleij, R. (2005). Kwaliteit van Illegale Dopingmiddelen. Capelle aan de IJssel: Nederlands Centrum voor Dopingsvraagstukken. Retrieved from http://www.dopingautoriteit.nl/media/files/documenten/Kwaliteit%20Illegale%20Dopingmiddelen.pdf
Corte Suprema di Cassazione, Sezione Seconda Penale. (2007). Sentenza sul ricorso proposto dalla Procura Generale presso la Corte d’Appello di Torino e dal difensore dell’imputato A.G. avverso la sentenza emessa dalla Corte d’Appello della stessa città in data 14 dicembre 1985. Sentenza n. Reg. Gen. N. 19255/06.
Dipartimento Politiche Antidroga. (2011). Relazione annuale al Parlamento sull’uso di sostanze stupefacenti e sulle tossicodipendenze in Italia. Dati relativi all’anno 2010 e elaborazioni 2011. Retrieved from http://www.politicheantidroga.it/progetti-e-ricerca/relazioni-al-parlamento/relazione-annuale-2011/presentazione.aspx
Dipartimento Politiche Antidroga. (2012b). Relazione annuale al Parlamento sull’uso di sostanze stupefacenti e sulle tossicodipendenze in Italia. Dati relativi all’anno 2011 e elaborazioni 2012. Retrieved from http://www.politicheantidroga.it/progetti-e-ricerca/relazioni-al-parlamento/relazione-annuale-2012/presentazione.aspx
Dodge, T., & Hoagland, M. F. (2011). The use of anabolic androgenic steroids and polypharmacy: A review of the literature. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 114(2–3), 100–109.
Doping Enquiry Taskforce. (2001, May 23). Report. Retrieved from http://www.minedu.fi/export/sites/default/OPM/Julkaisut/2001/liitteet/opm_57_doping_en.pdf?lang=fi
Dorn, N. (1992). Clarifying options on drug policy. In P. A. O’Hare, R. Newcombe, A. Matthews, E. C. Buning, & E. Drucker (Eds.), The reduction of drug-related harm (pp. 108–121). London: Routledge.
Ehrenberg, A. (1991). Le culte de la performance. Parijs: Calmann-Lévy.
European Commission. (2006). Community support plan to combat doping in sport. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: Community support plan to combat doping in sport. COM(99), 643. Retrieved from http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/sport/l35003_en.htm
European Health and Fitness Association. (2012, March 5). European fitness sector demands co-operation with anti-doping authorities after research results are released. Press release. Brussels. Retrieved from http://www.ehfa.eu/uploads/media/EHFA_Press_Release_FAD_5_March_2012.pdf
European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2002). Report on the risk assessment of GHB in the framework of the joint action on new synthetic drugs. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Retrieved from http://bookshop.europa.eu/is-bin/INTERSHOP.enfinity/WFS/EU-Bookshop-Site/en_GB/-/EUR/ViewPDFFile-OpenPDFFile;pgid=y8dIS7GUWMdSR0EAlMEUUsWb0000E-15-WQB;sid=56A6JK1836E6K-ER5ICkg89ZqsMkVqqv4XM=?FileName=TD3901045ENC_002.pdf&SKU=TD3901045ENC_PDF
European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2011). Annual Report 2011. The state of the drugs problem in Europe. Retrieved from http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/annual-report/2011
European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2012). Early warning system. Retrieved from http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/themes/new-drugs/early-warning
Fincoeur, B. (2009). Lutte antidopage et cyclisme à deux vitesses: évolution du rapport au dopage chez les cyclistes belges depuis l’affaire Festina. Revue internationale de criminologie et de police technique et scientifique, 3(9), 207–220.
Friesendorf, C. (2007). U.S. foreign policy and the war on drugs: Displacing the cocaine and heroin industry. London: Routledge.
Gasparini, W. (2004). Le corps performant par le dopage. Notes sociologiques. Drogues, santé et société, 3(1), 57–68.
German Sport University Cologne. (2011, August 4). Erste Europäische Beobachtungsstelle für neue Dopingsubstanzen. Press Release no. PM1152. Retrieved from http://www.dshs-koeln.de/wps/portal/de/home/institutions/press/aktuelles/pressemeldungen/pm1152?WCM_PORTLET=PC_7_D5U2
Global Commission on Drug Policy. War on drugs. Report. Retrieved from http://www.globalcommissionondrugs.org/wp-content/themes/gcdp_v1/pdf/Global_Commission_Report_English.pdf
Gobert, J., & Punch, M. (2003). Rethinking corporate crime. London: Butterworths.
Government Offices of Sweden. (2012). Measures targeting children and young people and reduced cannabis abuse prioritised in the Government’s ANDT policy 2012. Retrieved from http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/15471
Gräber, K. (2011, September 12–14). Die bayerische Schwerpunktstaatsanwaltschaft Doping: Ein Erfahrungsbericht. Speech at the international symposium “Sportmedizin und Doping in Europa,” Freiburg.
Greenfield, V. A., & Paoli, L. (2012). If supply-oriented drug policy is broken, can “harm reduction” help fix it? The International Journal on Drug Policy, 23(1), 6–15.
Guariniello, R. (2011, September 12–14). Anti-doping investigations in Italy: Football and the 2006 Turin Olympic Games. Speech at the international symposium “Sportmedizin und Doping in Europa”, Freiburg.
Haddow, D. (2012, April 18). Did Cartagena mark the beginning of the end of the war on drugs? The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2012/apr/18/cartagena-war-on-drugs
Hawkins, K. (1984). Environment and enforcement: Regulation and the social definition of pollution. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hibell, B., Andersson, B., Ahlström, S., Balakireva, O., Bjarnason, T., Kokkevi, A., et al. (2000). The 1999 ESPAD report: Alcohol and other drug use among students in 30 European countries. Stockholm: Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs.
Hibell, B., Andersson, B., Bjarnason, T., Kokkevi, A., Morgan, M., & Narusk, A. (1997). The 1995 ESPAD report: Alcohol and other drug use among students in 26 European countries. Stockholm: Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs.
Hibell, B., Guttormsson, U., Ahlström, S., Balakireva, O., Bjarnason, T., Kokkevi, A., et al. (2009). The 2007 ESPAD report: Substance use among students in 35 European countries. Stockholm: Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs.
Hoberman, J. M. (2005). Testosterone dreams: Rejuvenation, aphrodisia, doping. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Holz, M. (2012, March 19–20). The Interpol involvement against the trafficking of doping substances. Paper presented at the Sportsvision 2012, Copenhagen. Abstract retrieved http://www.sportvision2012.eu/files/EU2012_Web/Downloads/BA_Compiled_Final.pdf
Houlihan, B., & García, B. (2012, August). The use of legislation in relation to controlling the production, movement, importation, distribution and supply of performance-enhancing drugs in sport (PEDS). Retrieved from http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADP-Legal_Library/National_Legislation/UNESCO-Legislative-Research-Report-FINAL.pdf
Howman, D. (2011a, December 1). Current challenges and issues of anti-doping. Speech held at PCC Conference, New York. Retrieved from http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/News_Center/Speeches_Presentations/2011/WADA_DHowman_PCC_Current_Challenges_and_Issues_for_Anti-Doping_2011_12_01.pdf
International Olympic Committee. (2007). Summary of the IOC disciplinary commission recommendations regarding the National Olympic Committee of Austria (Österreichisches Olympisches Comité—ÖOC). Retrieved from http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_1183.pdf
Istat. (2007). La pratica sportiva in Italia: Anno 2006. Retrieved from http://www.coni.it/fileadmin/ops2008/Istat_sport_2006_Presentaz_070620.pdf
Jacobs, J., & Samuels, B. (1994–1995). The drug testing project in international sports: Dilemmas in an expanding regulatory regime. Hastings International & Company Law Review 18, 557–589.
Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2011. Volume I: Secondary school students. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.
Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G., Jr. (2008). Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse: A looming public health concern? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 98, 1–12.
Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. (2009). Features of men with anabolic androgenic steroid dependence: A comparison with nondependent AAS users and with AAS nonusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 102, 130–137.
Kanayama, G., & Pope, H. G., Jr. (2012). Illicit use of androgens and other hormones: Recent advances. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity, 19(3), 211–219.
Kanayama, G., Pope, H. G., Cohane, G., & Hudson, J. I. (2003). Risk factors for anabolic androgenic steroid use among weightlifters: A case-control study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 71(1), 77–86.
Kerlikowske, R. G. (2012, May 21). Principles of modern drug policy. Statement of the Government of the United States of America World Federation Against Drugs 3rd World Forum. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp/news-releases-remarks/principles-of-modern-drug-policy-directors-remarks-at-the-world-federation-against-drugs
Larance, B., Degenhardt, L., Copeland, J., & Dillon, P. (2008). Injecting risk behaviour and related harm among men who use performance- and image-enhancing drugs. Drug and Alcohol Review, 27(6), 679–686.
Laure, P., & Binsinger, C. (2005). Adolescent athletes and the demand and supply of drugs to improve their performance. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 4, 272–277.
Ljungqvist, A. (2010). Der Anti-Doping-Kampf als Aufgabe des IOC. In W. Blumenthal (Ed.), Der Kampf gegen Doping: Die gesellschaftliche Verantwortung von Sport und Politik auf Nationaler und internationaler Ebene (pp. 19–36). Sankt Augustin/Berlin: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V. Retrieved from http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_20651-544-1-30.pdf?100929165220
MacMichael, S. (2011). UCI President Pat McQuaid insists cycling is winning the war against the dopers. Road.cc. Retrieved from http://road.cc/content/news/44660-uci-president-pat-mcquaid-insists-cycling-winning-war-against-dopers
McCord, J. (2003). Cures that harm: Unanticipated outcomes of crime prevention programs. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 587, 16–30.
Mendoza, M. (2010). US war on drugs has met none of its goals: AP impact. Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/05/13/us-war-on-drugs-has-met-n_n_575351.html
Meyer, K., & Parssinen, T. (1998). Webs of smoke: Smugglers, warlords, spies and the history of the International Drug Trade. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, Sweden. (2010). A cohesive strategy for alcohol, narcotic drugs, doping and tobacco (ANDT) policy—A summarised version of Government Bill 2010/11:47. Retrieved from http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/18/03/81/d054fbfb.pdf
Moore, W. H. (1974). The Kefauver committee and the politics of crime, 1950–1962. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.
Müller-Platz, C., Boos, C., & Klaus Müller, R. (2006). Doping beim Freizeit- und Breitensport. Berlin: Robert-Koch-Institut. Retrieved from http://www.drogenbeauftragte.de/fileadmin/dateien-dba/DrogenundSucht/Medikamente/Bilder/Downloads/Doping_beim_Freizeit-_und_Breitensport_060901_Drogenbeauftragte.pdf
Nadelmann, E. A. (1989). Drug prohibition in the United States: Costs, consequences, and alternatives. Science, 245, 939–947.
NAS Firenze. (2005). Indagine oil for drug. Informativa conclusiva sull’esito delle indagini.
NAS Padova. (2009, November 3). Comando Carabinieri per la tutela della salute. Nucleo Antisofisticazioni e Sanità di Padova. Operazione “Flebo”: Utilizzo di sostanze dopanti nel ciclismo e nel rugby. Relazione al 2° Master Investigativo Antidoping. Rome.
Nelken, D. (2007). White collar crime. In M. Maguire, R. Morgan, & R. Reiner (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology (4th ed., pp. 733–770). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Paoli, L., Greenfield, V. A., & Reuter, P. (2009). The world heroin market: Can supply be cut? New York: Oxford University Press.
Parkinson, A. B., & Evans, N. A. (2006). Anabolic androgenic steroids: A survey of 500 users. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38(4), 644–651.
Pearce, F., & Tombs, S. (1990). Ideology, hegemony, and empiricism. Compliance theories of regulation. British Journal of Criminology, 30(4), 423–443.
Perry, P. J., Lund, B. C., Deninger, M. J., Kutscher, E. C., & Schneider, J. (2005). Anabolic steroid use in weightlifters and bodybuilders: An internet survey of drug utilization. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 15(5), 326–330.
Pound, R. W. (2011a, September 12–14). WADA—A success story? Presentation made at the Freiburg Symposium sports medicine and doping, Freiburg.
Pound, R. W. (2011b, October 3–6). Responses to corruption in sport. Speech at Play the Game, Cologne.
Reuter, P. (1983). Disorganized crime: The economics of the visible hand. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Reuter, P. (1985). The organization of illegal markets: An economic analysis. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
Reuters. (2012). Olympics-Athletics-Schwazer tested positive for EPO. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/07/olympics-dope-ita-schwazer-idUSL4E8J74MR20120807
Seccombe, R. (1995). Squeezing the balloon: International drugs policy. Drug and Alcohol Review, 14(3), 311–316.
Severino, P. (2012). Relazione del guardasigilli sull’amministrazione della Giustizia nell'anno 2011: Anno 2012. Retrieved from http://www.giustizia.it/giustizia//it/mg_6_9.wp?contentId=NOL57984
Singler, A. (2011). Dopingprävention—Anspruch und Wirklichkeit. Shaker: Aachen.
Singler, A., & Treutlein, G. (2001). Doping. Von der Analyse zur Prävention—Vorbeugung gegen abweichendes Verhalten in soziologischem und pädagogischem Zugang.. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer.
Singler, A., & Treutlein, G. (2010). Doping im Spitzensport. Sportwissenschaftliche Analysen zur nationalen und internationalen Leistungsentwickung (5th ed.). Aachen: Meyer & Meyer.
Sportausschuss des Deutschen Bundestages. (2011). Wortprotokoll, 34. Sitzung. Retrieved from http://www.jensweinreich.de/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/34-SpA-Protokoll.pdf
Striegel, H., Simon, P., Frisch, S., Roecker, K., Dietz, K., Dickhuth, H. H., et al. (2006). Anabolic ergogenic substance users in fitness-sports: A distinct group supported by the health care system. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 81, 11–19.
Swedish National Institute of Public Health. (2010). Doping in Sweden—An inventory of its spread, consequences and interventions. Östersund: Swedish National Institute of Public Health. Retrieved from http://www.fhi.se/PageFiles/10951/R2010-21-Doping%20in%20Sweden-webb.pdf
Tappan, P. W. (1947). Who is the criminal? American Sociological Review, 12, 96–102.
Transparency International. (2011). Corruption perceptions index. Retrieved from http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/results/
Tribunale di Bologna. (2004, October 1). Sentenza nei confronti di Ferrari Michele + 3. No. 2997/97 R.G. notizie di reato.
U.S. Anti-Doping Agency. (2012c). Report on Proceedings under the World Anti-Doping Code and the Usada Protocol: United States Anti-Doping Agency, Claimant, v. Lance Armstrong, Respondent. Reasoned Decision of the United States Anti-Doping Agency on Disqualification and Ineligibility. Retrieved from http://cyclinginvestigation.usada.org/
U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. (2012). Stride data. Retrieved from http://www.justice.gov/dea/stride_data.html
U.S. Government Accounting Office. (2005). Anabolic steroids are easily purchased without a prescription and present significant challenges to law enforcement officials. GAO-06-243R Anabolic Steroids. Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06243r.pdf
UK Antidoping. (2011, February 17). Future of anti-doping is in intelligence says WADA President. Retrieved from http://www.ukad.org.uk/news/article/anti-doping-press-conference
UNESCO. (2007, January 5). International Convention against Doping in Sport: 41 States will take part in first Conference of States Parties. Retrieved from http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=36311&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
United Nations General Assembly Special Session. (1997). Political Declaration of the General Assembly. A/S-20/4 chapter V, Section A, clause 19. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/ga/20special/poldecla.htm
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2012). World drug report 2012. New York: United Nations.
Waddington, I. (2000). Sport, health and drugs. London: E&FN Spon.
Waddington, I. (2011). Client control and the limits of professional autonomy: Or why do sports physicians dope athletes? Paper presented at the symposium: “Doping and Sports medicine”, Freiburg, 12–14 September.
Wiesing, U. (2011). Should performance-enhancing drugs in sport be legalized under medical supervision? Sport Medicine, 41(2), 167–176.
Winnipeg Free Press. (2006, September 9). World cycling chief declares “unconditional war” on doping. Retrieved from http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/historic/31775524.html
World Anti-Doping Agency. (2009c). World anti-doping code. Retrieved from http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADP-The-Code/WADA_Anti-Doping_CODE_2009_EN.pdf
World Anti-Doping Agency. (2010e, November 21). Minutes of the WADA foundation board meeting, Montreal. Retrieved from http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/About_WADA/FoundationBoard_Minutes/WADA_FB_Minutes_21Nov2010_EN.pdf
World Anti-Doping Agency. (2011a). 2010 Adverse analytical findings and atypical findings reported by accredited laboratories—Overview of results. Retrieved from http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/Resources/Statistics/Laboratory_Statistics/WADA_2010_Laboratory_Statistics_Report.pdf
World Anti-Doping Agency. (2013b). Contributions to WADA’s Budget 2012. Retrieved from http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/About_WADA/Funding/WADA_Contributions_2012_update_EN.pdf
World Anti-Doping Agency. (2013c). Funding. Retrieved from http://www.wada-ama.org/en/About-WADA/Funding/
World Anti-Doping Agency. (2013d). Investigations and trafficking. Retrieved from http://www.wada-ama.org/en/Anti-Doping-Community/Governments/Investigation-Trafficking/
Wright, V. (2010). Deterrence in criminal justice: Evaluating certainty vs. severity of punishment. Retrieved from http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/Deterrence%20Briefing%20.pdf
Zambardino, V. (1993a, November 28). Controlli a pioggia sugli atleti padovani. La Repubblica, 26. Retrieved from http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/1993/11/28/controlli-pioggia-sugli-atleti-padovani.html
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Paoli, L., Donati, A. (2014). Synthesis of Findings and Lessons for Policy-Making. In: The Sports Doping Market. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8241-3_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8241-3_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-8240-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-8241-3
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)