Abstract
Humans are the highest form of intelligent life on Earth. But what is it that makes us distinctly human? From a purely scientific perspective, what, if anything, sets us apart from other forms of life? Are there other important considerations, apart from the natural sciences, which might be necessary, if we want a complete picture of what it means to be human? In this chapter we will explore these and other questions related to our humanness. We conclude by focusing on the question, what can we learn from an android about what it means to be human?
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References
Introduction: Being Human
M. Shelley, Frankenstein (Bantam Books, New York, 1975), p. 42
Bodies with Replaceable Parts
Frankenstein (James Whale, Universal Studios 1931). A scientist learns “what it feels like to be God” after successfully assembling and animating a living creature from dead human body parts [DVD scenes 5, 6]
Mad Love (The Hands of Orlac) (Karl Freund, MGM 1935). A hand transplant more than 60 years before the first successful operation of this kind [DVD scenes 8, 9]
D. Hamilton, A History of Organ Transplantation (University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 2012), p. 291
D. Hamilton, op. cit., p. 142
Star Trek (The Original Series) – Spock’s Brain (Marc Daniels, Paramount 1968). Dr. McCoy must acquire the delicate surgical skills necessary to put Spock’s stolen brain back where it belongs [DVD vol. 31, ep. 61, scenes 1, 2, 6 or full episode]
The Man They Could Not Hang (Nick Grinde, Columbia Pictures 1939). Cardiopulmonary bypass machine more than a decade before first actual use of such a device [DVD scenes 1, 2, 6]
Resistance to Disease
The War of the Worlds (Byron Haskin, Paramount 1952). Military weapons useless against invaders from Mars [DVD scenes 5, 9]
War of the Worlds (Steven Spielberg, Paramount 2005). The gruesome details of the alien invasion are faithful to the novel [DVD scenes 5, 6]
War of the Worlds (Steven Spielberg, Paramount 2005). Cause of death of Martian invaders described using quotes from novel [DVD closing scene]
The War of the Worlds (Byron Haskin, Paramount 1952). Martian invaders die from bacterial infection [DVD scene 13]
F.C. Clark, A brief history of antiseptic surgery. Med. Lib. Hist. J. 5 (Sept 1907), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692621/
Contagion (Steven Soderbergh, Warner Brothers 2011). An amateur’s explanation of R0, the reproduction number for a viral infection, misses the mark on the rate of progression [DVD scene 24]
Cell Structure and Radiation Damage
Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (Nicholas Meyer, Paramount 1982). Spock exposes himself to a lethal dose of gamma radiation, in order to restore warp-drive to the Enterprise [DVD scene 15]
The War of the Worlds (Byron Haskin, Paramount 1952). Geiger counter used to measure radiation from an object fallen from space [DVD scene 2]
xkcd Radiation Dose Chart, http://xkcd.com/radiation/
Godzilla (Roland Emmerich, Columbia Tristar 1998). Biologist studies the effects of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster on worms [DVD scene 3]
Nature – Radioactive Wolves (Klaus Feichtenberger, THIRTEEN 2011) [DVD scene 1]
Them (Gordon Douglas, Warner Brothers 1954). “Lingering radiation from the first atomic bomb” causes ants to grow to gigantic proportion [DVD scenes 10, 11]
Crespo-Hernandez et al., J. Phys. Chem. A (2004), http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp049270k
DNA and the Human Genome
The Island of Dr. Moreau (Don Taylor, MGM 1977). The title character claims that he has “…almost proved the existence of a cell particle that controls heredity” [DVD scene 6]
History and goals of the Human Genome Project, http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml
F.S. Collins, The Language of God (Free Press – Simon and Shuster, New York, 2006), p. 118 (Watson opposed to gene patents)
F.S. Collins, op. cit., p. 124 (size of human genome)
F.S. Collins, op. cit., p. 111 (on “junk DNA”)
Encyclopedia of DNA Elements, http://encodeproject.org/ENCODE/
Spider-Man (Sam Raimi, Columbia Pictures 2002). A high school student is bitten by a genetically engineered super-spider, and acquires spider-like abilities [DVD scenes 2, 3]
F.S. Collins, op. cit., p. 137 (similarity between human and chimpanzee genomes)
Cracking the Code of Life (Elizabeth Arledge, WGBH 2001). PBS NOVA series episode, focusing on the Human Genome Project, Genetic variation among humans [DVD scene 6]
I am Legend (Francis Lawrence, Warner Brothers 2007). A cure for cancer has been found by genetically engineering the measles virus. But the virus mutates with bizarre, if not lethal consequences [DVD scenes 1, 2]
GATTACA (Andrew Niccol, Columbia Pictures 1997). Natural birth, versus genetically screened and selected birth [DVD scenes 3, 4], Genetic discrimination and impersonation [DVD scenes 6, 7]
NOVA – Cracking Your Genetic Code (Sarah Holt, WGBH 2012). Eric Lander: 180 genes involved in determining the height of an individual [DVD scene 6], Jonathan Rothberg on genotyping vs. DNA sequencing, and Francis Collins’ genotype test results [DVD scene 3], Gene-based therapy for cancer [DVD scene 5], Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) [DVD scene 6]
Cloning
Jurassic Park (Steven Spielberg, Universal Studios 1993). A theme park is created with living dinosaurs, cloned from DNA found in jurassic mosquitoes preserved in amber [DVD scenes 5, 6]
R.P. Lanza, B.L. Dresser, P. Damiani, Cloning Noah’s ark. Sci. Am. (Nov 2000)
The Island (Michael Bay, Warner Brothers 2005). Clones are created and sold as insurance policies to the wealthy [DVD scenes 8]
The Island (Michael Bay, Warner Brothers 2005). Some of the clones are found not only to be biologically identical to their “sponsors,” but also to have their memories [DVD scene 13]
Human Teleportation
The Prestige (Christopher Nolan, Touchstone and Warner Brothers 2006). Nikola Tesla is commissioned to build a teleportation device. The device succeeds, but with one small problem: it creates a duplicate in another location, but does not destroy the original [DVD scene 18]
Star Trek (original series), “The Corbomite Maneuver” (Joseph Sargent, Paramount 1966). The first showing of the transporter, as well as the debut of Dr. McCoy [DVD vol. 1, ep. 2, scene 7]
The Fly (Kurt Neumann, 20th Century Fox 1958). A scientist works to create a matter teleportation device. Initial tests look promising, but the ultimate test has disastrous consequences [DVD scenes 9, 10]
Star Trek: The Next Generation, “Ship in a Bottle” (Alexander Singer, Paramount 1993). “Heisenberg compensators” [DVD season 6, disc 3, scenes 1, 2, 7]
Star Trek: The Next Generation, “Relics” (Alexander Singer, Paramount 1992). Information loss: “pattern degradation” [DVD season 6, disc 1, scenes 1, 2]
Beyond Biology
H. Moravec, Robot: Mere Machine to Transcendent Mind (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998)
R. Kurtzweil, The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology (Penguin, New York, 2005), p. 7
D. MacKay, Brains, Machines & Persons (William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd, London, 1980), p. 60 and p. 49
M. Dickerson, The Mind and the Machine: What It Means to Be Human and Why It Matters (Brazos, Grand Rapids, 2011), p. xiv
What Can We Learn from an Android About What It Means to Be Human?
Star Trek: The Next Generation – Unification, Part II (Cliff Bole, Paramount 1991). Dialog between Spock and Data, in regard to what it means to be human [DVD season 5, disc 2, scene 5]
Star Trek: The Next Generation, “Rightful Heir” (Winrich Kolbe, Paramount 1993). Data’s choice to be more than just a machine [DVD season 6, disc 6, scene 8]
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Luokkala, B.B. (2014). What Does It Mean to Be Human?. In: Exploring Science Through Science Fiction. Science and Fiction. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7891-1_6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7891-1_6
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