Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hard X-ray and gamma-ray detectors

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Observing Photons in Space

Part of the book series: ISSI Scientific Report Series ((ISSI,volume 9))

  • 2438 Accesses

Abstract

The detection of photons above 10 keV up to gigaelectronvolt energies is challenging due to the penetrating nature of the radiation, which can require large detector volumes, resulting in correspondingly high background. In this energy range, most detectors in space are either scintillators or solid-state detectors. The choice of detector technology depends on the energy range of interest, expected levels of signal and background, required energy and spatial resolution, particle environment on orbit, and other factors. This section covers the materials and configurations commonly used from 10 keV to > 1 GeV.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Agostinelli S, Allison J, Amako K (plus 124 authors) (2003) GEANT4 — a simulation toolkit. Nuc Inst Meth A 506:250–303

    Google Scholar 

  • Amman MS, Luke PN (1997) Coplanar-grid detector with single-electrode readout. Proc SPIE 3115: 205-213

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Amman M, Luke PN (2000) Three-dimensional position sensing and field shaping in orthogonal-strip germanium gamma-ray detectors. Nuc Inst Meth A 452: 155–166

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Aprile E, Egorov V, Giboni KL (plus eight authors) (1998) The electronics read out and data acquisition system for a liquid xenon time projection chamber as a balloon-borne Compton telescope. Nuc Inst Meth A 412:425–436

    Google Scholar 

  • Aprile E, Doke T (2010) Liquid xenon detectors for particle physics and astrophysics. Rev Mod Phys 82:2053–2097

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Ariesanti E, Kargar A, McGregor DS (2010) Fabrication and spectroscopy results of mercuric iodide Frisch collar detectors. Nuc Inst Meth A 642:656–661

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Atwood WB, Abdo AA, Ackermann M (plus 237 authors) (2009) The Large Area Telescope on the Fermi gamma-ray space telescope mission. Astrophys J 697:1071–1102

    Google Scholar 

  • Awadalla SA, Chen H, MacKenzie J (plus seven authors) (2009) Thickness scalability of large volume cadmium zinc telluride high resolution radiation detectors. J Appl Phys 105, 114910–114910-5

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandstra MS, Bellm EC, Boggs SE (plus 17 authors) (2011) Detection and Imaging of the Crab Nebula with the Nuclear Compton Telescope. Astrophys J 738:8

    Google Scholar 

  • Barthelmy SD, Barbier M, Cummings JR (plus 12 authors) (2005) The Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) on the SWIFT Midex Mission. Space Sci Rev 120:143–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger MJ, Hubbell JH, Seltzer SM (plus four authors) (1998) XCOM: Photon Cross Sections Database, NIST Standard Reference Database 8 (XGAM) (online)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bicron (Saint Gobain Crystals) (2007) BrilLanCeTM 350 (LaCl3(Ce)) and BrilLanCeTM 380 (LaCl3(Ce)) data sheets, http://www.detectors.saint-gobain.com/

  • Biggerstaff JA, Becker RL, McEllistrem MT (1961) Charged particle discrimination in a CsI(T1) detector. Nuc Inst Meth 10:327–332

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Bloser PF, Andritschke R, Kanbach G (plus three authors) (2002) The MEGA advanced Compton telescope project. New Astron Rev 46:611–616

    Google Scholar 

  • Boggs S, Chang Y-H for the NCT collaboration (2007) The Nuclear Compton Telescope (NCT): Scientific goals and expected sensitivity. Adv Space Res 40: 1281–1287

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolotnikov AE, Cook WR, Boggs SE (plus two authors) (2001) Development of high spectral resolution CdZnTe pixel detectors for astronomical hard X-ray telescopes. Nuc Inst Meth A 458:585–592

    Google Scholar 

  • Boynton WV, Feldman WC, Mitrofanov IG (plus 26 authors) (2004) The Mars Odyssey gamma-ray spectrometer instrument suite. Space Sci Rev 110:37–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Brückner J, Koerfer M, Waenke H (plus six authors) (1991) Proton-induced radiation damage in germanium detectors. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci 38:209–217

    Google Scholar 

  • CERN Application Software Group (1993) Detector description and simulation tool. CERN Program Library Long Writeup W5013

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen H, Awadalla SA, Iniewski K (plus 17 authors) (2008) Characterization of large cadmium zinc telluride crystals grown by traveling heater method. J Appl Phys 103:014903-1–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherepy NJ, Hull G, Niedermayr TR (plus nine authors) (2007) Barium iodide single-crystal scintillator detectors. Proc SPIE 6706:670616-1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherepy NJ, Payne SA, Strum BW (plus 13 authors) (2010) Comparative gamma spectroscopy with SrI2(Eu), GYGAG(Ce) and Bi-loaded plastic scintillators. IEEE Nuc Sci Symp Conf Rec, 1288–1291

    Google Scholar 

  • Dean AJ, Bird AJ, Diallo N (plus five authors) (2003) The modelling of background noise in astronomical gamma-ray telescopes. Space Sci Rev 105:285–376

    Google Scholar 

  • Diallo N, Collin M, Bersillon O (plus three authors) (1996) Impacts of the shield thickness on the induced background. Proc SPIE 2806:545–550

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishman GJ, Austin RW (1977) Large-area multi-crystal NaI(Tl) detectors for X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy. Nuc Inst Meth 140:193–196

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Gehrels N (1992) Instrumental background in gamma-ray spectrometers flown in low Earth orbit. Nuc Inst Meth A 315:513–528

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Giacconi R, Kellogg E, Gorenstein P (plus two authors) (1971) An X-ray scan of the Galactic plane from Uhuru. Astrophys J Lett 165:L27–L35

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldsten JO, Rhodes EA, Boynton WV (plus 21 authors) (2007) The MESSENGER gamma-ray and neutron spectrometer. Space Sci Rev 131:339–391

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison FA, Boggs S, Christensen F (plus 30 authors) (2010) The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR). Proc SPIE 7732:77320S–77320S-8

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawrami R, Groza M, Cui Y (plus four authors) (2008) SrI2: a novel scintillator crystal for nuclear isotope identifiers. Proc SPIE 7079:70790Y-1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Heynderickx D, Quaghebeur B, Wera J (plus two authors) (2004) New radiation environment and effects models in the European Space Agency’s Space Environment Information System (SPENVIS). Space Weather 2:S10S03

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitomi K, Kikuchi Y, Shoji T, Ishii K (2008) Evaluation of TlBr detectors with Tl electrodes. Proc SPIE 7079:70790J-1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey A, Cabral R, Brissette R (plus three authors) (1978) Imaging proportional X-ray counter for HEAO. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci 25:445–452

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurford GJ (2013) X-ray imaging with collimators, masks and grids. ISSI SR-009:243–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurley K (1978) Phosphorescence in CsI crystals. Astron Astrophys 69:313–319

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Jahoda K, Markwardt CB, Radeva Y (plus five authors) (2006) Calibration of the Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer Proportional Counter Array. Astrophys J Suppl 163:401–423

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson WN, Kinzer RL, Kurfess JD (plus seven authors) (1993) The Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment — Instrument description. Astrophys J Suppl 86:693–712

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim H, Chirilov A, Ciampi G (plus six authors) (2011) Continued development of thallium bromide and related compounds for gamma-ray spectrometers. Nuc Inst Meth A 629:192–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Koenen M, Kinzer RL, Kurfess JD (plus two authors) (1995) Radiation damage in large-volume n- and p-type high-purity germanium detectors irradiated by 1.5 GeV protons. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci 42:653–658

    Google Scholar 

  • Knoll GK (2000) Radiation detection and measurement. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurczynski P, Pehl RH, Hull EL (plus 14 authors) (1999) Long-term radiation damage to a spaceborne germanium spectrometer. Nuc Inst Meth A 431: 141–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurfess JD, Johnson WN, Kroeger RA (plus four authors) (2004) An advanced Compton telescope based on thick, position-sensitive solid-state detectors. New Astron Rev 48:293–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Labanti C, Marisaldi M, Fuschino F (plus four authors) (2008) Position sensitive X- and gamma-ray scintillator detector for new space telescopes. Proc SPIE 7021:702116-1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebrun F, Blondel C, Fondeur I (plus three authors) (1996) ISGRI: a CdTe array imager for INTEGRAL. Proc SPIE 2806:258–268

    Google Scholar 

  • Lechner P, Eckhard R, Fiorini C (plus six authors) (2008) Hard X-ray and gamma-ray imaging and spectroscopy using scintillators coupled to silicon drift detectors. Proc SPIE 7021:702111-1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Lei F, Dean AJ, Hills GL (1997) Compton polarimetry in gamma-ray astronomy, Space Sci Rev 82:309–388

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Leleux P, Albernhe F, Borrel V (plus 15 authors) (2003) Neutron-induced nuclear reactions and degradation in germanium detectors. Astron Astrophys 411:L85–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine AM, Bradt H, Cui W (plus five authors) (1996) First results from the all-sky monitor on the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer. Astrophys J Lett 469:L33–L36

    Google Scholar 

  • Lonjou V, Roques JP, von Ballmoos P (plus five authors) (2005) Characterization of the in-flight degradation of the INTEGRAL/SPI detectors. Nuc Inst Meth A 554:320–330

    Google Scholar 

  • Luke PN (1988) Low noise germanium radial drift detector. Nuc Inst Meth A 271:567–570

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Luke PN (1994) Single-polarity charge sensing in ionization detectors using coplanar electrodes. Appl Phys Lett 65:2884–2886

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney WA, Ling JC, Jacobson AS, Tapphorn RM (1980) The HEAO-3 gamma-ray spectrometer. Nuc Inst Meth 178:363–381

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • McGregor DS, He Z, Seifert HA (plus two authors) (1998) Single charge carrier type sensing with a parallel strip pseudo-Frisch-grid CdZnTe semiconductor radiation detector. Appl Phys Lett 72:792–794

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris DJ, Aarts H, Bennett K (plus seven authors) (1992) Neutron induced background in the COMPTEL detector on the Gamma-Ray Observatory. NASCP 3137:102–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagayoshi T, Kubo H, Miuchi K (plus seven authors) (2004) Development of μ-PIC and its imaging properties. Nuc Inst Meth A 525:20–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Natalucci L, Alvarez JM, Barriere N (plus 13 authors) (2008) CdZnTe detector for hard X-ray and low energy gamma-ray focusing telescope. Proc SPIE 7011:70111S-1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Naya JE, Jean P, Bockholt J (plus three authors) (1996) The neutron spectrum inside the shielding of balloon-borne Ge spectrometers. Nuc Inst Meth A 368: 832–846

    Google Scholar 

  • Oed A (1988) Position-sensitive detector with microstrip anode for electron multiplication with gases. Nuc Inst Meth A 263:351–359

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Owens A, Brandenburg S, Buis E-J (plus six authors) (2007) An assessment of radiation damage in space-based germanium detectors due to solar proton events. Nuc Inst Meth A 583:285–301

    Google Scholar 

  • ORTEC division of AMETEK, Inc. (2008) LO-AXTM Low-Energy Photon Detector datasheet, http://www.ortec-online.com/

  • Peacock A, Andresen RD, Manzo G (plus five authors) (1981) The gas scintillation proportional counter on EXOSAT. Space Sci Rev 30:525–534

    Google Scholar 

  • Pehl RH, Madden NW, Elliott JH (plus three authors) (1979) Radiation damage resistance of reverse electrode Ge coaxial detectors. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci NS 26:321–323

    Google Scholar 

  • Pirard B, Cabrera J, d’Uston C (plus four authors) (2007) Solar proton damage in high-purity germanium detectors. Nuc Inst Meth A 572:698–707

    Google Scholar 

  • Raudorf T, Trammell RC, Wagner S, Pehl RH (1984) Performance of reverse electrode HPGe coaxial detectors after light damage by fast neutrons. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci NS 31:253–257

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rehak P, Gatti E, Longoni A (plus five authors) (1985) Semiconductor drift chambers for position and energy measurements. Nuc Inst Meth A 235:224–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter M, Siffert P (1992), High resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy with CdTe detector systems. Nuc Inst Meth A 322:529–537

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rothschild RE, Blanco PR, Gruber DE (plus six authors) (1998) In-flight performance of the high energy X-ray timing experiment on the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer. Astrophys J 496:538–549

    Google Scholar 

  • Sangsingkeow P (1999) Recent developments in HPGe material and detectors for gamma-ray spectroscopy. Proc SPIE 3768:204–211

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sauli F (1997) GEM: A new concept for electron amplification in gas detectors. Nuc Inst Meth A 386:531–534

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Schönfelder V, Kanbach G (2013) Imaging through Compton scattering and pair creation. ISSI SR-009:225–242

    Google Scholar 

  • Seifert H, Teegarden BJ, Cline TL (plus seven authors) (1996) Gamma-ray observations with the Transient Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (TGRS. Astron Astrophys Suppl 120:653–656

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith DM, Leventhal M, Cavallo R (plus three authors) (1996) All-sky search for transient souces near 0.5 MeV with the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE). Astrophys J 471:783–795

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith DM, Lin RP, Turin P (plus 17 authors) (2002) The RHESSI spectrometer. Sol Phys 210:33–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Spieler H (2005) Semiconductor Detector Systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Takada A, Kubo H, Nishimura H (plus 13 authors) (2011) Observation of Diffuse Cosmic and Atmospheric Gamma Rays at Balloon Altitudes with an Electron-tracking Compton Camera. Astrophys J 733:13

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi T, Mitsuda K, Kunieda H (2006) The NeXT mission. Proc SPIE 6266:62660D-1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi T, Abe K, Endo M (plus 66 authors) (2007) Hard X-Ray Detector (HXD) on board Suzaku, Pub Ast Soc Japan 59:35–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka Y, Fujii M, Inoue H (plus seven authors) (1984) X-ray astronomy satellite Tenma. Pub Ast Soc Japan 36:641–658

    Google Scholar 

  • Tavani M, Barbiellini G, Argan A (plus 121 authors) (2009) The AGILE mission. Astron Astrophys 502:995–1013

    Google Scholar 

  • Tueller J, Krimm HA, Okajima T (plus 12 authors) (2005) InFOCμS hard X-ray imaging telescope. Exp Astron 20:121–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Ubertini P, Lebrun F, Di Cocco G (plus 17 authors) (2003) IBIS: The Imager on-board INTEGRAL. Astron Astrophys 411:L131–139

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Berg L, Bastian LF, Zhang F (plus two authors) (2007) Fabrication and performance of mercuric iodide pixellated detectors. Proc SPIE 6706:67060J-1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Vedrenne G, Kandel B, Albernhe F (plus 25 authors) (1998) The SPI spectrometer for the INTEGRAL mission. Physica Scripta 77:35–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Weidenspointner G, Harris MJ, Sturner S (plus two authors) (2005) MGGPOD: a Monte Carlo Suite for Modeling Instrumental Line and Continuum Backgrounds in Gamma-Ray Astronomy. Astrophys J Suppl 156:69–91

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, CM, van Loef EV, Glodo J (plus seven authors) (2008) Strontium iodide scintillators for high energy resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy. Proc SPIE 7079:707917-1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamaoka K, Arai Y, Doshida T (plus ten authors) (2007) Development of a gamma-ray burst detector based on silicon drift detectors and scintillators. Proc SPIE 6686:66860K-1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Zych AD, O’Neill TJ, Bhattacharya D (plus four authors) (2006) TIGRE prototype gamma-ray balloon instrument. Proc SPIE 6319:631919-1–10

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Mark McConnell for very helpful suggestions on the manuscript of this chapter.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Physics Department and Santa Cruz Institute for Particle Physics, University of California, Santa Cruz, USA

    David M. Smith

Authors
  1. David M. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland

    Martin C. E. Huber , Anuschka Pauluhn  & Alex Zehnder ,  & 

  2. Mullard Space Science Lab, University College London, Dorking, Surrey, UK

    J. Len Culhane

  3. Nightsen, Inc., Tiverton, Rhode Island, USA

    J. Gethyn Timothy

  4. Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany

    Klaus Wilhelm

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Smith, D.M. (2013). Hard X-ray and gamma-ray detectors. In: Huber, M.C.E., Pauluhn, A., Culhane, J.L., Timothy, J.G., Wilhelm, K., Zehnder, A. (eds) Observing Photons in Space. ISSI Scientific Report Series, vol 9. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7804-1_21

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7804-1_21

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-7803-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-7804-1

  • eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation