Skip to main content

Electrocardiography

  • Chapter

Abstract

Electrophysiology was created within the science of electricity rather than physiology. In this chapter we shall begin with an account of the early history of electricity, describe the first observations and experiments in electrophysiology, and show how eventually this became a science of its own. Electrocardiography arose as a particular phase of electrophysiology, and developed almost wholly through advances in electrophysical concepts and instrumentation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   179.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Bibliography

  1. Abildskov, J. A., G. E. Burch, and J. A. Cronvich. The validity of the equilateral tetrahedron as a spatial reference system. Circulation, 2: 122, 1950.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Abramson, D. I., and K. Jochim. The pathway taken by the impulse in the mammalian ventricles. Amer. J. Physiol., 119: 257, 1937.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Ader, C. Sur un nouvel appareil enregistreur pour câbles sous-marins. C.R. Acad. Sci. (Paris), 124: 1440, 1897.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Adrian, R. H. The effects of membrane potential and external potassium concentration on the potassium permeability of muscle fibres. J. Physiol. (Lond.), 143: 59P, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Alexander, J. T., and W. L. Nastuk. An instrument for the production of microelectrodes used in electrophysiological studies. Rev. sci. Instrm., 24: 528, 1953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Amberson, W. R. The influence of fashion in the development of knowledge concerning electricity and magnetism. Amer. Sci., 46: 33, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Aschoff, L. Zur Myocarditisfrage. Verh. dtsch. path. Ges., 8: 46, 1904.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Aschoff, L. Concerning the question of myocarditis. Tr. by F. A. Willius. In Cardiac Classics. F. A. Willius and T. E. Keys, Eds. St. Louis, Mosby, 1941.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Ashman, R., E. Byer, and R. H. Bayley. The normal human ventricular gradient. I. Factors which affect its direction and its relation to the mean Qrs axis. Amer. Heart J., 25: 16, 1943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. IO. Barker, L. F., and A. D. Hirschfelder. The effects of cutting the branch of the His bundle going to the left ventricle. Arch. intern. Med., 4: 193, 1909.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Barker, P. S., A. G. Macleod, and J. Alexander. The excitatory process observed in the exposed human heart. Amer. Heart J., 5: 720, 1930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Barr, N. L. The radio transmission of physiological information. Milit. Surg., 114: 79, 1954.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Bayley, R. H. Exploratory lead systems and “zero potentials. ” Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 1110, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Bayley, R. H., E. W. Reynolds, JR., C. L. Kinard, and J. F. Head,The zero of potential of the electric field produced by the heart beat. The problem with reference to homogeneous volume conductors. Circulat. Res., 2: 4, 1954.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Bayliss, W. M., and E. H. Starling. On the electromotive phenomena of the mammalian heart. Proc. roy. Soc. B, 50: 211, 1891.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Beasley, C. R. Alexander Neckam. Encyclopedia Britannica (1 ith ed.), 19: 336, 1910.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Becking, A. G. TH., H. C. Burger, and J. B. Van Milaan. A universal vectorcardiograph. Brit. Heart J., 12: 339, 1950.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Bernstein, J. Die Thermoströme des Muskels und die “Membrantheorie” der biolektrischen Ströme. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 131: 589, 191o.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Bidwell, S. Magnetism. Encyclopedia Britannica (II th ed.), 17: 321, 1910.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Bourne, G. H. Enzymes of the intercalated disks of heart muscle fibres. Nature, 172: 588, 1953.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. BoweitcH, H. P. Ueber die Eigenthümlichkeit der Reizbarkeit, welche die Muskelfasern des Herzens Zeigen. Arbeit. physiol. Anst. Leipzig, 6: 139, 1871.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Bramwell, C. The Approach to Cardiology. London, Oxford University Press, 1951.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Brazier, M. A. B. The Evolution of Concepts Relating to the Electrical Activity of the Nervous System, 1600 to 1800. In The Brain and its Functions. Springfield, Ill., Thomas, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Bright, C. The Story of the Atlantic Cable. New York, Appleton, 1903.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Briller, S. A. The integrated electrocardiogram. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 894, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Briller, S. A. Dipole theory in the analysis of the electrocardiogram and the vectorcardiogram. In C. E. Kossmann, Ed. Advances in Electrocardiography. New York, Grune and Stratton, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Briller, S. A., N. Marchand, and C. E. Kossmann. A differential vectorcardiograph. Rev. sci. Instrm., 21: 805, 1950.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Brody, D. A. The meaning of lead vectors and the Burger triangle. Amer. Heart J., 48: 730, 1954.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Brody, D. A. Discussion: Part IV (Distribution of electrical potentials in volume conductors). Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 1051, 1957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Brody, D. A., and W. E. Romans. A model which demonstrates the quantitative relationship between the electromotive forces of the heart and the extremity leads. Amer. Heart J., 45. 263, 1953.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Brooks, C. Mcc., B. F. Hoffman, E. E. Suckling, and O. Orias. Excitability of the Heart. New York, Grune & Stratton, 1955.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Bryant, J. M. Intraventricular Conduction. In C. E. Kossmann, Ed. Advances in Electrocardiography. New York, Grune & Stratton, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Burchell, H. B. Current problems of excitation. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 741, 1957.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Burchell, H. B., R. D. Pruitt, and H. E. Essex. Excitation of the isolated ventricular septum of the heart. Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 77: 117, 1951.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Burdon-Sanderson, J. The mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of striped muscle. In E. A. Schiifer, Ed. Text-Book of Physiology, vol. 2. Edinburgh, Pentland, 1900.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Burdon-Sanderson, J., and F. J. M. Page. Experimental results relating to the rhythmical and excitatory motions of the ventricle of the heart of the frog, and of the electrical phenomena which accompany them. Proc. roy. Soc. B, 27: 410, 1878.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Burdon-Sanderson, J., and F. J. M. Page. On the time-relations of the excitatory process in the ventricles of the heart of the frog. J. Physiol. (Lond.), 2: 384, 1879–80.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Burger, H. C., and J. B. Van Milaan. Heart-vector and leads. Brit. Heart J., 8: 157, 1946.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Burger, H. C., and J. B. Van Milaan. Heart-vector and leads. Part II. Brit. Heart J., 9: 154, 1947.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Burger, H. C., J. B. Van Milaan, and W. Den Boer. Comparison of different systems of vectorcardiography. Brit. Heart J., 14: 401, 1952.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Butler, F. H. Compass. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th ed.), 6:8o8, 1910.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Cardwell, J. C., and D. I. Abramson. The atrio-ventricular conduction system of the beef heart. Amer. J. Anat., 49: 167, 1931.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Carter, E. P. Clinical observations on defective conduction in the branches of the auriculo-ventricular bundle. Arch. intern. Med., 13: 803, 1914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Cavendish, H. An account of some attempts to imitate the effects of the torpedo by electricity. Phil. Trans., 66: 196, 1776.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Clement, E. Über eine neue Methode zur Untersuchung der Fortleitung des Erregungsvorganges im Herzen. Z. Biol., 58: 110, 1912.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Cohen, I. B. Introduction. In L. Galvani. Commentary on the Effects of Electricity on Muscular Motion. Tr. by M. G. Foley. Norwalk, Conn., Burndy Library, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Cohn, A. E., and T. Lewis. The pathology of bundle branch lesions of the heart. Proc. N.Y. Path. Soc., 14: 207, 1914.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Cole, K. S. Ions, potentials, and the nerve impulse. In T. Shedlovsky, Ed. Electrochemistry in Biology and Medicine. New York, Wiley, 1955.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Cole, K. S. Introduction to Part I (Cellular events during the cardiac cycle). Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 657, 1957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Craib, W. H. A study of the electrical field surrounding active heart muscle. Heart, 14: 71, 1927.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Craib, W. H. A study of the electrical field surrounding skeletal muscle. J. Physiol. (Lond.), 66: 49, 1928.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Cranefield, P. F., and B. F. Hoffman. Electrophysiology of single cardiac cells. Physiol. Rev., 38: 41, 1958.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Cranefield, P. F., and B. F. Hoffman. Propagated repolarization in heart muscle. J. gen. Physiol., 41: 633, 1958.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Curtis, H. J., and K. S. Cole. Membrane action potentials from the squid giant axon. J. cell. comp. Physiol., 15:147, 1940.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Dolgin, M., S. Grau, and L. N. Katz. Experimental studies on the validity of the central terminal of Wilson as an indifferent reference point. Amer. Heart J., 37: 868, 1949.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Donzelot, E., J. B. Milovanovich, and H. Kaufmann. Etudes pratiques de vectographie. Paris, L’Expansion scientifique française, 1950.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Draper, M. H., and S. Weidmann. Cardiac resting and action potentials recorded with an intracellular electrode. J. Physiol. (Lond.), 11574, 1951.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Dreifus, L. S., and A. Pick. A clinical correlative study of the electrocardiogram in electrolyte imbalance. Circulation, 14: 815, 1956.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Du Bois-Reymond, E. Untersuchungen über thierische Elektricität, vols. I & II. Berlin, Reimer, 1848–60.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Duchosal, P. W. and R. Sulzer. La vectocardiographie. Méthode d’exploration du champ éléctrique créé dans le corps humain par les courants d’action du coeur dans les conditions normales et pathologiques. Bibl. cardiol., Fasc. 3, 1949.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Durrer, D. Electric activity of the sinus node, atrial myocardium and atrioventricular node. Circulation, 12: 697, 1955.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Durrer, D., and. L. H. Van Der Tweel. Spread of activation in the left ventricular wall of the dog. II. Activation conditions at the epicardial surface. Amer. Heart J., 47: 192, 1954.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Durrer, D., L. H. Van Der Tweel, and J. R. Blickman. Spread of activation in the left ventricular wall of the dog. Iii. Transmural and intramural analysis. Amer. Heart J., 48: 13, 1954.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Einthoven, W. Ueber den Einfluss des Leitungswiderstandes auf die Geschwindigkeit der Quecksilberbewegung in Lippmann’s Capillarelectrometer. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 60: 91, 1895.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Einthoven, W. Ueber die Form des menschlichen Electrocardiogramms. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 6o:1oi, 1895.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Einthoven, W. Un nouveau galvanomètre. Arch. néerl. Sci., Ser. II, 6: 625, 1901.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Einthoven, W. Ein neues Galvanometer. Annal. d. Physik Folge IV, 12: 1059, 1903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Einthoven, W. Die galvanometrische Registrirung des menschlichen Elektrokardiogramms, zugleich eine Beurtheilung der Anwendung des Capillar-Elektrometers in der Physiologie. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 99: 472, 1903.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Einthoven, W. The galvanometric registration of the human electrocardiogram, likewise a review of the use of the capillary-electrometer in physiology. In Cardiac Classics. Tr. by F. W. Willius. F. A. Willius and E. Keys, Eds. St. Louis, Mosby, 1941.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Einthoven, W. Le télécardiogramme. Arch. in Physiol., 4:132, 1906.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Einthoven, W. Die Konstruktion des Saitengalvanometers. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 130: 287, 1909.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Einthoven, W., G. Fahr, and A. DE Waart. Über die Richtung und die manifeste Grösse der Potentialschwankungen im menschlichen Herzen und über den Einfluss der Herzlage auf die Form des Elektrokardiogramms. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 15o: 275, 1913.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Einthoven, W., G. Fahr, and A. DE Waart. On the direction and manifest size of the variations of potential in the human heart and on the influence of the position of the heart on the form of the electrocardiogram. Tr. by H. E. Hoff and P. Sekelj. Amer. Heart J., 40: 163, 1950.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Engelmann, T. W. Ueber das Verhalten des thätigen Herzens. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 17: 68, 1878.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Eppinger, H., and C. J. Rothberger. Ueber die Folgen der Durchschneidung der Tawaraschen Schenkel des Reizleitungssystems. Z. klin. Med., 7o: 1, 191o.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Eppinger, H., and O. Stoerk. Zur Klinik des Elektrokardiogramms. Z. klin. Med., 71: 157, 1910.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Erfmann, W. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Fortleitung des Erregungsvorganges im Warmblüterherzen. Z. Biol., 61: 155, 1913.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Erlanger, J. Observations on the physiology of Purkinje tissue. Amer. J. Physiol., 3o: 395, 1912.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Eyster, J. A. E., and W. J. Meek. Experiments on the origin and propagation of the impulse in the heart. The point of primary negativity in the mammalian heart and the spread of negativity to other regions.Heart, 5:119, 1914.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Eyster, J. A. E., W. J. Meek, H. Goldberg, and W. E. Gilson. Potential changes in an injured region of cardiac muscle. Amer. J. Physiol., 124: 717, 1938.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Fahr, G. An analysis of the spread of the excitation wave in the human ventricle. Arch. intern. Med., 25: 146, 1920.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Fahr, G., and A. Weber. Über die Ortsbestimmung der Erregung im menschlichen Herzen mit Hilfe der Elektrokardiographie. Dtsch. Arch. klirr. Med., 117: 361, 1915.

    Google Scholar 

  83. First, S. R., R. H. Bayley, and D. R. Bedford. Peri-infarction block; electrocardiographic abnormality occasionally resembling bundle branch block and local ventricular block of other types. Circulation, 2: 31, 1950.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Fleming, J. A. Electricity. Encyclopedia Britannica (iith ed.), 9: 179, 1910.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Fontana, F. Traité sur le vénin de la vipère, sur les poisons américains, sur le laurier-cerise, et sur quelques autres poisons végetaux. Florence, 1781. Cited by H. E. H.fl. Galvani and the preGalvanian electrophysiologists. Ann. Sci., 1: 157, 1936.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Frank, E. The image surface of a homogeneous torso. Amer. Heart J., 47: 757, 1954.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Frank, E. Measurement and significance of cancellation potentials on the human subject. Circulation, íI: 937, 1955.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Frank, E. Spread of current in volume conductors of finite extent. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 980, 1957.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Franklin, B. Experiments and Observations on Electricity, made at Philadelphia, 1751–1754. London, 1769.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Galvani, L. De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius. De Bononiensi Scientarium et Artium Instituto atque Academia Commentarii, 7: 363–418, 1791.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Galvani, L. Dell’uso e dell’attività dell’Arco conduttóre nelle contrazioni dei muscoli. Bologna, Tommaso d’Aquino, 1794.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Galvani, L. il “Taccuino” di Luigi Galvani. Riproduzione in facsimile dell’autografo conservato nella biblioteca dell’Archiginnasio di Bologna…. Bologna, Zanichelli, 1937.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Gardberg, M., and I. L. Rosen. The ventricular gradient of Wilson. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 873, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Gilbert, W. De Magnete, magneticisque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure; physiologia nova, plurimis & argumentis & experimentis demonstrata. London, Short, 1600.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Gilbert, W. On the Magnet, Magnetick Bodies also on the Great Magnet, the Earth. Tr. by S. P. Thompson. London, Cheswick, 190o.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Goldberger, E. A simple, indifferent, electrocardiographic electrode of zero potential and a technique of obtaining augmented, unipolar, extremity leads. Amer. Heart J., 23: 483, 1942.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Grant, R. P., and E. H. Estes, JR. Spatial Vector Electrocardiography. Philadelphia, Blakiston, 1951.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Grishman, A., and L. Scherlis. Spatial Vectorcardiography. Philadelphia, Saunders, 1952.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Groedel, F. M. Das Extremitäten-, Thorax-und Partial-Elektrokardiogramm des Menschen, eine vergleichende Studie. Dresden, Steinkopff, 1934.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Groedel, F. M., and P. R. Borchardt. Direct Electrocardiography of the Human Heart and Intrathoracic Electrocardiography. New York, Brooklyn Medical Press, 1948.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Guillemin, A. V. Electricity and Magnetism. Tr. by S. P. Thompson. London, Macmillan, 1891.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Hall, A. R. The Scientific Revolution, 1500–1800; the Formation of the Modern Scientific Attitude. New York, Longmans, Green, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Harris, A. S. The spread of excitation in turtle, dog, cat, and monkey ventricles. Amer. J. Physiol., 134: 319, 1941.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Hartmann, I., R. Veyrat, O. A. M. WYss, and P. W. Duchosal. Vectorcardiography as studied on the isolated mammalian heart suspended in a homogeneous volume conductor. Cardiologia, 27: 129, 1955.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Hecht, H. H. Research in electrocardiography. Editorial. Circulat. Res., 3: 231, 1955.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Hellerstein, H. K. Atrial infarction with diagnostic electrocardio graphic findings. Amer. Heart J., 36: 422, 1948.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Hellerstein, H. K. Contributions of cardiac catheterization to electrocardiography. In H. A. Zimmerman, Ed. Intravascular Catheterization. Springfield, Ill., Thomas, 1959.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Hellerstein, H. K., and L. N. Katz. The electrical effects of injury at various myocardial locations. Amer. Heart J., 36: 184, 1948.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Hellerstein, H. K., and I. M. Liebow. Electrical alternation in experimental coronary artery occlusion. Amer. J. Physiol., 160: 366, 1950.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Hellerstein, H. K., and I. M. Liebow. Factors influencing the T wave of the electrocardiogram. An experimental study employing intracavitary and extraventricular (epicardial) leads. I. Effect of heating and cooling the endocardium and the epicardium. Amer. Heart J., 39: 35, 1950.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Hellerstein, H. K., D. Shaw, and T. Sano. Dissection of the vectorcardiogram: differential vectorcardiography. Amer. Heart J., 47887, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Helmholtz, H. Über einige Gesetze der Verteilung elektrischer Ströme in körperlichen Leitern, mit Anwendung auf die tierisch-elektrischen Versuche. Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1853.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Hill, A. The genesis of the normal electrocardiogram. Brit. Heart J., 8: 147, 1946.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. HIs, W., JR. Die Thätigkeit des embryonalen Herzens und deren Bedeutung für die Lehre von der Herzbewegung beim Erwachsenen. Arb. med. klin. Lpz., 14, 1893.

    Google Scholar 

  115. His, W., JR. The function of the embryonic heart and its significance in the interpretation of the heart action in the adult. In Cardiac Classics. Tr. by F. A. Willius. F. A. Willius and T. E. Keys, Eds. St. Louis, Mosby, 1941.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Historical NoTes. Augustus Désiré Waller (1856–1922): Pioneer in electrocardiography. Med. Press, 236: 80, 1956.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Hodgkin, A. L., and A. F. Huxley. Action potentials recorded from inside a nerve fibre. Nature, 144: 710, 1933.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Hodgkin, A. L., A. F. Huxley, and B. Katz. Measurement of current-voltage relations in the membrane of the giant axon of Loligo. J. Physiol., 116: 424, 1952.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Hodgkin, A. L., and B. Katz. The effect of sodium ions on the electrical activity of the giant axon of the squid. J. Physiol. (Lond.), 108: 37, 1949.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Hoff, H. E., and L. A. Geddes. The rheotome and its pre-history: A study in the historical interrelation of electrophysiology and electromechanics. Bull. Hist. Med., 31: 212, 1957.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Hoff, H. E., and L. A. Geddes. The rheotome and its pre-history: A study in the historical interrelation of electrophysiology and electromechanics. Bull. Hist. Med., 31: 327, 1957.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Hoffman, B. F., A. P. DE Carvalho, W. C. Mello, and P. F. Cranefield. Electrical activity of single fibers of the atrioventricular node. Circulat. Res., 7: 11, 1959.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Hollmann, H. E., and W. Hollmann. Das Einthovensche Dreiecksschema als Grundlage neuer elektrokardiographischer Registrier methoden. Z. klin. Med., 134: 732, 1938.

    Google Scholar 

  124. Von Humboldt, F. W. H. A. Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen Process des Lebens in der Thier-und Pflanzenwelt. Vol. I. Posen, Decker, 1797.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Hunter, J. Anatomical observations on the torpedo. Phil. Trans., 63: 481, 1773.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Huxley, A. F., and R. E. Taylor. Activation of a single sarcomere. J. Physiol., 13o: 49P, 1955.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Johnston, F. D. Electrocardiography, p. 352. In O. Glasser, Ed. Medical Physics. Chicago, Year Book Publishers, Inc., 1944.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Johnston, F. D. The spread of currents and distribution of potentials in homogeneous volume conductors. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 963, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Karni, H. S. TsE loop in left ventricular hypertrophy. Amer. Heart J., 56: 518, 1958.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Katz, L. N. The genesis of the electrocardiogram. Physiol. Rev., 27: 398, 1947.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Katz, L. N., and A. Pick. Clinical Electrocardiography, Part I, The Arrhythmias. Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1956.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Katz, L. N., E. Sigman, I. Gutman, and F. H. Ocko. The effect of good electrical conductors introduced near the heart on the electrocardiogram. Amer. J. Physiol., 116: 343, 1936.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Keith, A., and M. Flack. The form and nature of the muscular connections between the primary divisions of the vertebrate heart. J. Anat. (Lond.), 41: 172, 1907.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Kennamer, R., J. L. Bernstein, M. H. Maxwell, M. Prinzmetal, and C. M. Shaw. Studies on the mechanism of ventricular activity. V. Intramural depolarization potentials in the normal heart with a consideration of currents of injury in coronary artery disease. Amer. Heart J., 46: 379, 1953.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Kleinfeld, M., E. Stein, and J. Magin. Electrical alternans in single ventricular fibers of the frog heart. Amer. J. Physiol., 187: 139, 1956.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Koch, E. Allgemeine Elektrokardiographie. 8th ed. Dresden, Steinkopf)’, 1945.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Lliker, A., and H. MÜLler. Zweiter Bericht über die im Jahr 1854/55 in der physiologischen Anstalt der Universität Würzburg angestellten Versuche. Vii. Nachweis der negativen Schwankung des Muskelstroms am natürlich sich contrahirenden Muskel. Verh. phys.med. Ges. Würzb,. 6: 528, 1856.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Kossmann, C. E., Ed. Advances in Electrocardiography. New York, Grune & Stratton, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Kossmann, C. E. Recovery of cardiac muscle, a particular problem. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 869, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. LenÉGre, J. Contribution a l’étude des blocs de branche, comportant notamment les confrontations électriques et histologiques. Paris, Baillière, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Lepeschkin, E. Modern Electrocardiography. Vol. I. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1951.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Lepeschkin, E., L. N. Katz, H. Schaefer, A. M. Shanes, and S. Weidmann. The U wave and afterpotentials in cardiac muscle: Panel Discussion. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 942, 1957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Lewis, T. The Mechanism and Graphic Registration of the Heart Beat. 3rd ed. London, Shaw, 1925.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Lewis, T., and M. A. Rothschild. The excitatory process in the dog’s heart. Part II. The ventricles. Phil. Trans. B, 206: 181, 1915.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Lindner, E., and L. N. Katz. The relative conductivity of the tissues in contact with the heart. Observations on animals with closed chests. Amer. J. Physiol., 125: 625, 1939.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Ling, G., and R. W. Gerard. The normal membrane potential of frog sartorius fibers. J. cell. comp. Physiol., 34.383, 1949.

    Google Scholar 

  147. Lippmann, G. Rélations entre les phénomènes électriques et capillaires. Ann. Chim. (Phys.), ser. 5, 5: 494, 1875.

    Google Scholar 

  148. McFee, R., R. M. Stow, and F. D. Johnston. Graphic representation of electrocardiographic leads by means of fluid mappers. Circulation, 6: 21, 1952.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Macinnes, D. A. The Principles of Electrochemistry. New York, Reinhold, 1939.

    Google Scholar 

  150. Macleod, A. G. In F. D. Johnston and E. Lepeschkin, Eds. Selected Papers, F. N. Wilson, Note, p. 275. Ann Arbor, Edwards, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  151. Mann, H. A method of analyzing the electrocardiogram. Arch. intern. Med., 25: 283, 1920.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. Mann, H. Interpretation of bundle-branch block by means of the monocardiogram. Amer. Heart J., 6: 447, 1931.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  153. Mann, H. The monocardiograph. Amer. Heart J., 15: 681, 1938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  154. Marchand, R. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Reizwelle und Contractionswelle des Herzmuskels. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 15: 511, 1877.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Marey, E. J. Des variations électriques des muscles et du coeur en particulier, étudiées au moyen de l’électrometre de M. Lippmann. C.R. Acad. Sci. (Paris), 82: 975, 1876.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Matteucci, C. (Extrait d’une lettre) Nouvelles éxperiences relatives â l’électricité animale. C.R. Acad. Sci. (Paris), 15: 797, 1842.

    Google Scholar 

  157. Matteucci, C. Sur le courant électrique des muscles des animaux vivants ou récemment tués. C.R. Acad. Sci. (Paris), 16: 197, 1843.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Mathewson, G. D. Lesions of the branches of the auriculo-ventricular bundle. Heart, 4: 385, 1912.

    Google Scholar 

  159. Medrano, G. A., A. Bisteni, R. W. Brancato, F. Pileggi, and D. Sodi-Pallares. The activation of the interventricular septum in the dog’s heart under normal conditions and in bundle-branch block. Ann N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 804, 1957.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Milnor, W. R., S. A. Talbot, and E. V. Newman. A study of the relationship between unipolar leads and spatial vectorcardiograms, using the panoramic vectorcardiograph. Circulation, 7: 545, 1953.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Mönckeberg, J. G. Zur Frage der besonderen muskulären Verbindung zwischen Sinus- und Atrioventrikularknoten im Herzen. Zbl. Herz. u. Gefasskr., v. 2: I, 1910.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Muir, A. R. An electron microscope study of the embryology of the intercalated disc in the heart of the rabbit. J. biophys. biochem. Cytol., 3: 193, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Nahum, L. H., and H. E. Hoff. The configuration of epicardial and endocardial extrasystoles in the chest leads. Amer. J. Physiol., 145: 615, 1946.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Nastuk, W. L., and A. L. Hodgkin. The electrical activity of single muscle fibers. J. cell. comp. Physiol., 35:39, 1950.

    Google Scholar 

  165. Nelson, C. V. Human thorax potentials. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 1014, 1957.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Oersted, H. C. Galvanic magnetism. Phil. Mag., 56: 394, 1820.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Oppenheimer, B. S., and M. A. Rothschild. Abnormalities in the Qrs group of the electrocardiogram associated with myocardial involvement. Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 14: 57, 1916.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Overton, E. Beiträge zur allgemeinen Muskel-und Nervenphysiologie. Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 92: 346, 1902.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Pass DE Carvalho, A., and B. F. Hoffman. Evidence for specialized intra-atrial conducting paths. Fed. Proc., 17: 120, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  170. Paesde Carvalho, A., W. C. Demello, and B. F. Hoffman, Eds. The Specialized Tissues of the Heart. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Specialized Tissues of the Heart, August 196o, Rio de Janeiro. Amsterdam, Holland, Elsevier, 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  171. Palicki, B. De musculari cordis structura. Dissertation. Breslau, 1839.

    Google Scholar 

  172. Pick, A., R. Langendorf, and L. N. Katz. Advances in the electrocardiographic diagnosis of cardiac arrhythmias. Med. Clin. N. Amer., p. 269, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  173. Pipberger, H., L. Schwartz, R. A. Massumi, and M. Prinzmetal. Studies on the nature of the repolarization process. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 924, 1957.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Plato. Ion. Tr. by W. R. M. Lamb. (Loeb Classical Library). London, Heinemann, 1925.

    Google Scholar 

  175. Poggendorff, J. C. Ueber den Gebrauch der Galvanometer als Messwerkzeuge. Ann. Phys. Lpz., 56: 324, 1842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Poggendorff, J. C. On the use of the galvanometer as a measuring instrument. Tr. by J. D. Easter. A. R. Smithson. Inst., p. 396, 186o.

    Google Scholar 

  177. Porter, K. R., and G. E. Palade. Studies on the endoplasmic reticulum. Iii. Its form and distribution in striated muscle cells. J. biophys. biochem. Cytol., 3: 269, 1957.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Pruitt, R. D., A. R. Barnes, and H. E. Essex. Electrocardiographic changes associated with lesions in the deeper layers of the myocardium. An experimental study. Amer. J. med. Sci., 210: 100, 1945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  179. Puech, P. L’activité électrique auriculaire normal et pathologique. Paris, Masson, 1956.

    Google Scholar 

  180. Pupilli, G. C. In L. Galvani. Commentary on the effect of electricity on muscular motion. Introduction. Tr. by R. M. Green. Cambridge, Mass., Licht, 1953.

    Google Scholar 

  181. Rakita, L., J. L. Borduas, S. Rothman, and M. Prinzmetal. Studies on the mechanism of ventricular activity. Xii. Early changes in the RS-T segment and Qrs complex following acute coronary artery occlusion. Experimental study and clinical applications. Amer. Heart J., 48351, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Rosenbaum, F. F., H. H. Hecht, F. N. Wilson, and F. D. Johnston. The potential variations of the thorax and the esophagus in anomalous atrioventricular excitation (Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome). Amer. Heart J., 29: 281, 1945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  183. Rosenman, R. H., A. Pick, and L. N. Katz. Intraventricular block. Arch. intern. Med., 86: 196, 195o.

    Google Scholar 

  184. Rothberger, C. J. Allgemeine Physiologie des Herzens. In Handbuch der normalen und pathologischen Physiologie, 7:523. Berlin, Springer, 1926.

    Google Scholar 

  185. Sano, T., H. K. Hellerstein, and E. Vayda. P vector loop in health and disease as studied by the technique of electrical dissection of the vectorcardiogram (Differential vectorcardiography). Amer. Heart J., 53: 854, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Savjoloff, V. V. Methode der stereometrischen Elektrokardiographie. Z. Kreisl.-Forsch., 21: 705, 1929.

    Google Scholar 

  187. Schaefer, H. Zur Vektortheorie des Ekg, zur Funktionselektrokardiographie Kienles und zum elektrischen Herzbild. Dtsch. med. Wschr., 80: 11, 1955.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Schaefer, H. The general order of excitation and of recovery. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 743, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Schaeffer, H., and H. G. Haas. Electrocardiography. Chapter 13. In W. F. Hamilton and P. Dow, Eds. Handbook of Physiology. Section 2: Circulation. Washington, D.C., American Physiological Society, 1962, p. 323.

    Google Scholar 

  190. Schellong, F., S. Heller, and E. Schwingel. Das Vektordiagramm; eine Untersuchungsmethode des Herzens. I. Mitteilung. Z. Kreisl.Forsch., 29: 497, 1937.

    Google Scholar 

  191. Scher, A. M. Excitation of the heart. Chapter 12. In W. F. Hamilton and P. Dow, Eds. Handbook of Physiology. Section 2: Circulation. Washington, D.C., American Physiological Society, 1962, p. 287.

    Google Scholar 

  192. Scher, A. M., M. I. Rodriguez, J. Lukane, and A. C. Young. The mechanism of atrioventricular conduction. Circulat. Res., 7: 54, 1959.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Scher, A. M., and A. C. Young. Ventricular depolarization and the genesis of Qrs. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 768, 1957.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Schilling, H. K. A human enterprise. Science, 127: 1324, 1958.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Schmitt, O. H. Cathode-ray presentation of three-dimensional data. J. appl. Physiol., 18: 819, 1947.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  196. Schmitt, O. H. Lead vectors and transfer impedance. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 1092, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Schutz, E. Elektrophysiologie des Herzens bei einphasischer Ableitung. Ergebn. Physiol., 38: 493, 1936.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. Schwan, H. P., and C. F. Kay. The conductivity of living tissues. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 1007, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Shedlovsky, T. Introduction. In his Electrochemistry in Biology and Medicine. New York, Wiley, 1955•

    Google Scholar 

  200. Sodi-Pallares, D., E. Barbato, and A. Delmar. Relationship between the intrinsic deflection and subepicardial activation, an experimental study. Amer. Heart J., 39387, 1950.

    Google Scholar 

  201. Sodi-Pallares, D., and R. M. Calder. New Bases of Electrocardiography. St. Louis, Mosby, 1956.

    Google Scholar 

  202. Soderstrom, N. Myocardial infarction and mural thrombosis in the atria of the heart. Acta med. stand., suppl. 217, 1948.

    Google Scholar 

  203. Sue, P. Histoire du galvanisme; et analyse des différents ouvrages publiés sur cette découverte depuis son origine jusqu’à ce jour. Paris, Bernard, 1802.

    Google Scholar 

  204. Sulzer, R. L’électrogramme à deux dimensions du battement et de la fibrillation ventriculaire du coeur de lapin. Arch. in Physiol., 43:82, 1936.

    Google Scholar 

  205. Tawara, S. Das Reizleitungssystem des Säugetierherzens. Jena, Fischer, 1906.

    Google Scholar 

  206. Thorel, C. Vorläufige Mitteilung über eine besondere Muskelverbindung zwischen der Cava superior und dem Hisschen Bündel. Munch. med. Wschr., 56: 2159, 1909.

    Google Scholar 

  207. Volta, A. On the electricity excited by the mere contact of conducting substances of different kinds. In a letter… to Sir Joseph Banks, March 20, 180o. Phil. Trans., Pt. 2, p. 405, 1800.

    Google Scholar 

  208. Waller, A. D. An Introduction to Human Physiology. 2nd ed. New York, Longmans, Green, 1893.

    Google Scholar 

  209. Waller, A. D. On the electromotive changes connected with the beat of the mammalian heart, and of the human heart in particular. Phil. Trans. B, 180: 169, 1889.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  210. Waller, A. D. The Electrical Action of the Human Heart. London, University of London Press, 1922.

    Google Scholar 

  211. Waller, A. D. Obituary notice. Brit. Med. J., 1: 458, 1922.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  212. Waller, A. D., and E. W. Reid. On the action of the excised mammalian heart. Phil. Trans. B, 178: 215, 1887.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  213. Walsh, J. Of the electrical property of the torpedo. Phil. Trans., 63:461, 1773 (Table 19).

    Google Scholar 

  214. Walsh, J. Of torpedos found on the coast of England. Phil. Trans., 64: 464, 1773–75.

    Google Scholar 

  215. Weidmann, S. Resting and action potentials of cardiac muscle. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 663, 1957.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Weizsacker, C. F. Some fundamental problems of natural science. Presented at Geigy Bicentenary Scientific Day Report, June 3, 1958, Basle. ( Unpublished).

    Google Scholar 

  217. Wenckebach, K. F., and H. Winterberg. Die unregelmässige Herztätigkeit. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1927.

    Google Scholar 

  218. Whitehead, A. N., Science and the Modern World. New York, MacMillan, 1925.

    Google Scholar 

  219. Wiggers, H. C., and C. J. Wiggers. The interpretation of mono-phasic action potentials from the mammalian ventricle indicated by changes following coronary occlusion. Amer. J. Physiol., 113: 683, 1935.

    Google Scholar 

  220. Wilde, W. S. The pulsatile nature of the release of potassium from heart muscle during the systole. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 693, 1957.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Williams, H. B. On the cause of the phase difference frequently observed between homonymous peaks of the electrocardiogram. Amer. J. Physiol., 35: 292, 1914.

    Google Scholar 

  222. Wilson, F. N. A case in which the vagus influenced the form of the ventricular complex of the electrocardiogram. Arch. intern. Med., 16:ioo8, 1915.

    Google Scholar 

  223. Wilson, F. N. The distribution of the potential differences produced by the heart beat within the body and at its surface. Amer. Heart J., 5: 599, 1930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  224. Wilson, F. N., J. M. Bryant, and F. D. Johnston. On the possibility of constructing an Einthoven triangle for a given subject. Amer. Heart J., 37: 493, 1949.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Wilson, F. N., and F. D. Johnston. The vectorcardiogram. Amer. Heart J., 16: 14, 1938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  226. Wilson, F. N., F. D. Johnston, and P. S. Barker. The use of cathoderay oscillograph in the study of the monocardiogram. J. clin. Invest., 16: 664, 1937.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  227. Wilson, F. N., and G. R. Herrmann. Bundle branch block and arborization block. Arch. intern. Med., 26: 153, 1920.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  228. Wilson, F. N., F. D. Johnston, and I. G. W. Hill. The interpretation of the galvanometric curves obtained when one electrode is distant from the heart and the other near or in contact with the ventricular surface. Part II. Observations on the mammalian heart. Amer. Heart J., 10: 176, 1934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  229. Wilson, F. N., F. D. Johnston, F. F. Rosenbaum, and P. S. Barker. On Einthoven’s triangle, the theory of unipolar electrocardiographic leads, and the interpretation of the precordial electrocardiogram. Amer. Heart J., 32: 277, 1946.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Wilson, F. N., A. G. Macleod, and P. S. Barker. The interpretation of the initial deflection of the ventricular complex of the electrocardiogram. Amer. Heart J., 6: 637, 1931.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  231. Wilson, F. N., A. G. Macleod, and P. S. Barker. The potential variations produced by the heart at the apices of Einthoven’s triangle. Amer. Heart J., 7: 207, 1931.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  232. Wilson, F. N., A. G. Macleod, and P. S. Barker. The distribution of the currents of action and of injury displayed by heart muscle and other excitable tissues. Aim Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1933.

    Google Scholar 

  233. Wilson, F. N., A. G. Macleod, P. S. Barker, and F. D. Johnston. The determination and the significance of the areas of the ventricular deflections of the electrocardiogram. Amer. Heart J., 10: 46, 1934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  234. Wilson, F. N., A. G. Macleod, P. S. Barker, F. D. Johnston, and L. L. Klostermeyer. The electrocardiogram in myocardial infarction with particular reference to the initial deflections of the ventricular complex. In F. D. Johnston and E. Lepeschkin, Eds. Selected Papers, F. N. Wilson. Ann Arbor, Edwards, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  235. Wolferth, C. C., M. M. Livezey, and F. C. Wood. The relationships of Lead I, chest leads from the C3, C4, and C5 positions, and certain leads made from each shoulder region: The bearing of these observations upon the Einthoven equilateral triangle hypothesis and upon the formation of Lead I. Amer. Heart J., 21: 215, 1941.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  236. Wolff, L. The clinical entity of the syndrome. (Anomalous atrio-ventricular excitation: Panel discussion). Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 65: 828, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  237. Wolff, L., J. Parkinson, and P. D. White. Bundle-branch block with short P-R interval in healthy young people prone to paroxysmal tachycardia. Amer. Heart J., 5: 685, 193o.

    Google Scholar 

  238. Woodbury, J. W., and A. J. Brady. Intracellular recording from moving tissues with a flexibly mounted ultramicroelectrode. Science, 123: 100, 1956.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Woodbury, L. A., H. H. Hecht, and A. R. Christopherson. Membrane resting and action potentials of single cardiac muscle fibers of the frog ventricle. Amer. J. Physiol., 164: 307, 1951.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Young, J. Z. Structure of nerve fibres and synapses in some invertebrates. Cold Spr. Harb. Symp., quant. Biol., 4: 1, 1936.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1982 American Physiological Society

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Fishman, A.P., Richards, D.W. (1982). Electrocardiography. In: Fishman, A.P., Richards, D.W. (eds) Circulation of the Blood. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7546-0_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7546-0_5

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-7546-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics