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6.1 Urban Diversity, Social Cohesion, and Intercultural Dialogue

The social dimensions of sustainability are of, at least, the same importance as the ecological and economic dimensions. Definitions for sustainability suggest that sustainability is a striving for eternal youth, for “equity extended into the future,” a responsible resource-conscious journey to the well-being of all. It is a continuous invention of new opportunities, resembling youth itself, a capacity for innovation that is an inexhaustible resource, a permanent thirst for a better world.

Cities are the mirrors of societies. Social cohesion, a key feature of the EU social model, has an utmost value in cities, places of diversity, with its economic, gender, social, ethnic, racial, generational, and cultural dimensions. Diversity is not an obvious asset, inasmuch as otherness and difference often raise feelings of suspicion, which may generate incomprehension and engender violence. The citizen’s duty concerning respect for the difference has a long way to go yet in cities and it is probably best learned at schools.

A strong human and social capital is a characteristic of the sustainable city, which has the capacity to withstand crises. Social justice is a precondition for the creation of sustainable wealth. The role of equity in shaping sustainability processes is unparalleled. Unequal distribution of wealth may result in revolt, unsustainable lifestyles, and obstacles to cultural change. D. Harvey argues that “There is nothing more unequal than the equal treatment of unequals.”

Long before the “Occupy Wall Street” movement, modern cities had already become the central sites of revolutionary politics, where the deeper currents of social and political change rise to the surface. The city is a key arena within which class forces clash, given the strong relationship between urbanization and capital accumulation. The sharpening of these conflicts may transform movements for the right to the city into urban uprisings and revolutionary actions (Harvey 2012).

The main social challenges for cities include just distribution of wealth and solidarity, the harmonious coexistence of more than three generations, high-quality employment and home environments, the creation of a welcoming and friendly environment for newcomers and the most vulnerable and disadvantaged citizens, public well-being and security, and the enhancement of opportunities linked to urban diversity. Longer healthy lives are a great chance for citizens and cities wishing to address the expectations of an older population but also benefit from the experience and contribution of all and care about future generations.

Poverty is one extreme result of rising inequalities and deserves major attention by policy makers. Its multidimensional character makes it difficult to measure and monitor. Local services in everyday contact with people are probably the best placed to see the people behind the statistics. In the framework of the Europe 2020 strategy, a three-pronged approach to monitoring poverty and social exclusion is addressing the three main dimensions of poverty and exclusion, including income poverty, material deprivation, and exclusion from the labor market.

In 2010, 23 % of the European population was at risk of poverty and social exclusion. 80 million Europeans were at risk of one dimension of poverty, 28 at risk of two and 8 at risk of three dimensions of poverty. Lack of strong labor market attachment, youth or old age, particular family circumstances, including those caused by care obligations, as well as some other individual characteristics such as disability or a migrant or minority background are among the key risk factors (EC 2011h). Welfare systems reduced the risk of poverty by 38 % on average, and this impact varies from less than 10 % to nearly 60 % across the European Union (EC 2011h).

The reduction and eradication of poverty is a strong priority of all sustainable development policies. Poverty-trap conditions of low income and welfare-­dependent economic structures can exacerbate exclusion. Increased financial pressures, in a complex and fragmented institutional environment, have to be addressed through the horizontal and vertical integration of decision-making systems and the optimization of the contribution and commitment of the public, private, and social ­economy sectors (Parkinson 1998).

Poverty often concentrates in particular urban spaces and is inextricably linked to phenomena of urban decay, which constitute a colossal obstacle to sustainable prosperity. A quartered city mirrors multiple divisions due to globalization and economic developments; competition between companies, cities, regions, and nations; and the restructuring of welfare states. The combination of these factors often results in the dichotomy between spaces and functions.

Urban decay indicates that the capacity of urban systems to innovate and drive or adapt to change is overstretched and the urban cell renewal slows down. Distressed areas suffer functional impoverishment, with destitute housing; failing schools and insufficient equipment and facilities; delinquency and crime; high unemployment; low mobility; little access to information, education, and training; and high levels of substance abuse. Very often, transport infrastructure, whether operating or disused, fragment the urban web and further isolate distressed spaces from vibrant urban areas. Comprehensive urban policies have to simultaneously address all these aspects and create a new momentum.

Each city has some areas more problematic than others, where problems concentrate and should be seen as a source of opportunity to rediscover the art of living together. In the deeply divided city of Belfast of the 1970s, Shankill road could easily win the award of the most “problematic” European urban area. It is a prime example of challenging resistance to change. The industrial decline and the civil conflict of 1968 led to Catholic and Protestant neighborhoods physically separated by demarcation walls. With the assistance of the initiative “Making Belfast Work,” a local development agency was created and proposed a cooperation process that organized, in 1995, a community planning weekend entitled “Planning for the Real.” The event led to a strategy, implemented through a first urban program of 14 million Euros, shared with a nearby Catholic area. The program focuses on the work of parents and especially women, considered to represent a new generation of possibilities.

Preventing and fighting social exclusion is a major issue for cities suffering from various forms of schizophrenia with multiple spatial patterns and dynamics. To preserve their social capital, cities must regenerate their spatial and social fabric. They must offer all citizens access to information, education and training; adequate housing; and noble public, green, and recreational spaces; social services; and the possibility to participate in codesigning the future of the city. Building social cohesion contributes to the creation of a “good” society, able to endure threats (Galbraith 1996).

Cultural diversity, a resource for the dynamism and energy of a city, can increase social cohesion. Developing a sense of belonging and identity is crucial for cities wishing to adapt to change and enhance their diverse resources to attract investment. If cities manage diversity properly, they can benefit hugely from the potential of all minorities for entrepreneurship and innovation. For this, they should review the array of policies, services, and instruments to create the appropriate conditions and governance structures.

Many European cities have adopted integration strategies and mainstream them in all their policy domains. In 2005, the Berlin senate adopted for the first time a comprehensive policy defining the city’s overall approach to integration and setting guidelines for common action for the various services. This includes the identification of common goals and instruments, as well as of agreed-upon indicators to assess the effectiveness of municipal action. In Amsterdam, incidentally the city with the highest number of physical bridges, the commitment to mainstreaming integration, diversity, and equality in the work of all departments was an integral part of the coalition agreement signed by the “red–green” coalition of winning parties for the period 2006–2010 (Eurocities 2010).

The human face of cities is composed of the plurality of otherness. According to Socrates, if a man has to know himself, he must look into another man. Similarly, each culture draws from its own roots, but fails to blossom if not crossing other cultures. It is crucial to promote dialogue between all cultures in order to avoid ghettoization and prevent identity abuses. Working together with civil society can create a climate that values diversity, accessibility, and freedom by offering everyone the opportunity to share knowledge, exchange ideas, and strengthen the elements that compose cultural identity.

The number of languages spoken in a given city is becoming an important indicator of cultural diversity. It is estimated that 233 languages are spoken in London, a number indicative of the ethnic communities living in the British capital. Schools are the roots of integration, experiencing cultural and religious diversity on a daily basis. The natural open-mindedness of children makes diversity more accessible and direct. The “Tiempo Joven” integration project in Madrid involved thousands of young people of 16 different backgrounds and used rap, video, and drama as tools to foster a sense of identity and belonging (Fundación Bertelsmann and Cities of Migration 2012).

Multicultural cities hosting diverse cultures have to create the conditions for people not simply to coexist peacefully but to engage in a dialogue that generates a new collective urban identity. The Intercultural City program, jointly launched by the Council of Europe and the European Commission during the year of intercultural dialogue 2008, tried to enable cities to pertinently address the challenge of cultural diversity. Through the intercultural innovation network, the project facilitated mutual mentoring among a learning community of cities, politicians, practitioners, academics, and civil society.

A unique aspect of the initiative is that it tapped into the knowledge and perspectives of a range of city peers, including teenagers. Each city sent a team of ambassadors to another city to exchange experiences and foster intercultural dialogue through specific policies and structures. The program searched an optimum model for dealing with cultural diversity in local communities and managing relations between different ethnic and cultural groups (Eurocities 2009).

In implementing its civic agenda, Boston wishes to strengthen its collaborative gene and aim for leadership that reflects the full diversity of the city in the public, nonprofit, and private sectors. In 2008, 87 % of 111 organizations reported that employees of color made up at least 10 % of their workforce. Health care organizations had the highest percentage of employees of color (44 %). In 2007, women accounted for 11.5 % of directors of the 100 largest public companies with women of color making up 1.2 % (Boston Foundation 2009).

6.2 Employment, Housing, and Active Inclusion in Cities

The strategy Europe 2020 gives new prominence to social issues through its objective of inclusive growth. It stresses the need for social inclusion and fighting poverty, as well as enriching labor market participation with more and better jobs. These are vital elements of the European socioeconomic model that pleads for social solidarity and justice, human rights, and democracy.

Active inclusion could start with bridging the gender gap. Gender gap indexes could inspire cities to assess their ability to close the gender gap in key areas such as access to health care, access to education, political empowerment, and economic equality. The seventh annual World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap Report 2012 ranks Nordic European countries in high positions, with Iceland holding on to the top spot, followed by Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Ireland, respectively, and Denmark and Switzerland rank also among the first 10. The global economic gender gap now stands at 60 %, but only 20 % of the political participation gap has been closed. The report suggests a strong correlation between closing the gender gap and economic competitiveness at the national level (WEF 2012b).

The financial and economic crisis that in the European Union turned into a sovereign debt crisis and extensive recovery packages, followed by a wave of auste­rity measures by most governments, has distinctly highlighted the need for more integrated economic, employment, and social policies. The social consequences of the economic crisis and the reduced spending on environment make more acute the need for efficient, well-designed, and well-targeted policies at all levels.

Increasing employment levels and enhancing labor productivity, together with capital investment and innovation, are two sources of growth. Employment growth in the European Union has followed the timid economic recovery and resulted in a gain of only 1.5 million jobs by mid-2011, much less than the 6 million jobs lost during the recession. The number of the unemployed reached 23 million people, corresponding to 10 % of the working age population. Youth unemployment is particularly alarming as young workers usually are the main victims of the recession. More than five million young Europeans, 20 % of the labor market, above 25 % in 10 member states, with a high of 48 % in Spain, are unemployed. The share of the long-term unemployed among those looking for work exceeds 40 % and is up one third compared to the level of 30 % registered 2 years ago, after a falling trend from 1994 to 2008 (EC 2011g).

The surge of protesting movements such as the Indignados in Madrid is indicative of citizen reactions as the prospects for sustained and job-rich economic recovery have again become uncertain (EC 2011h). A jobless protracted recovery has not only important economic and social costs but also signals structural deficiencies in the labor market that weaken the seeds of growth. Although unemployment does not show signs of improvement, coincident rise in job vacancies and unemployment indicate labor market mismatches, such as inadequate skills. Life-long education and training policies are essential to equip citizens with the adequate skills for a sustainable recovery.

In 2010, 29 % of employed EU citizens had high-level qualifications, and 22 % had low qualifications, just the reverse of 2000. By 2020, 35 % of jobs are expected to require high qualifications and the demand for low skills will drop by 12 million jobs. However, educational attainment falls short of the growing skill-intensity of available jobs. One out of seven (14.41 %) youths aged 18–24 in the European Union leaves the education system definitely with no more than lower secondary education (early school leavers), whereas many have qualifications that do not correspond to the requirements of the labor market. Urban projects targeting young people who are neither in education and training nor in employment and offering them a rewarding first work experience, for example, in a renewable energy or recycling project, can have an invaluable impact.

A trend towards polarization of jobs already existed in the European Union before the crisis, as new jobs became concentrated in relatively high and low pay levels, notably in the service sector, with a predominance of better-paid jobs. The intensity of the recession and the implications on employment has further intensified this polarization by massively destroying medium-paid jobs in manufacturing and construction. At the same time, educational and skills profiles in the emerging employment structure tend to become more demanding, thus compromising the chances of re-employment and access to well-paid jobs for the lower-skilled unemployed.

Rising long-term unemployment, declining incomes, and signs of increasing poverty and material deprivation are significantly intensifying the risks of long-term exclusion from the labor market and local society. Cities traditionally play an important role in human capital creation and attract the most educated but also most of the unemployed. From a citizen perspective, choosing the right sorts of skills to develop is vital for a successful professional and social life. From the perspective of the urban economy, it is crucial to improve skills forecasting, labor market matching, adaptability of enterprises and workers to change, and to develop new sectors compatible with the search for sustainable development, for example, green growth with potential for sustainable job creation. The concept of flexicurity, flexibility within security, is regaining attention.

Despite the positive role that social systems played in preventing the collapse of household incomes during the crisis, and especially of those in the lower part of the income distribution scale, almost 116 million Europeans were at risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2010. And although employment is considered to be the first factor of social integration, over 8 % of the EU population in employment is estimated to be at risk of poverty and the trend in income inequalities remains a gene­rally upward one (EC 2011h).

Employment still remains the best safeguard against poverty and social exclusion but it does not eliminate this risk. Six in ten working-age Europeans at risk of poverty or social exclusion have a job and may be qualified as “working poor.” This exemplifies the need for an integrated approach addressing both social and employment situations. Working on a temporary contract, which is the case for 40 % of youths, is another important characteristic. Temporary contracts often carry a wage penalty, and this is a particular concern in countries where the percentages of obligatorily temporary work is high and future prospects are low. Emerging and potential working poor must be understood from a household perspective, notably as regards the composition of the nucleus, the presence of children, and the involvement of all adult members in employment. Households working at only half of their potential face a risk of poverty of 20 %, against 5 % for those who realize their full potential, that is, with two adults working full time.

Four in ten working-age Europeans at risk of poverty or social exclusion are inactive. Labor underutilization is especially prevalent among groups such as single parents, people with disabilities, older citizens, and migrants. Europeans over 65 years of age represent 16 % of the overall population but 22 % of the population at risk of poverty or social exclusion and the risk further increases in the age group over 75. Being born outside the European Union also represents a significant risk factor. Better integration of these groups into the labor market would enhance inclusion and prevent marginalization. In general, labor utilization can be increased by training, improving the functioning of labor markets, reforming the tax and transfer system, and maintaining labor market flexibility. Beyond labor market policies, the multiplicity, and complexity of social inclusion issues ask for a comprehensive and integrated approach focusing on individual needs in the local context.

The promotion of green jobs is central in the transition to a zero/low-carbon economy and society. The creation of green jobs is considered by the World Bank to be the most human face of green solidarity. For the ILO (International Labor Organization), the notion of green jobs summarizes the transformation of economies, enterprises, workplaces, and labor markets into a sustainable, low-carbon economy providing decent work. But much-needed innovative strategies to promote green jobs can only succeed with the full involvement and participation of workers and enterprises (ILO 2012; World Bank 2012a).

Housing is considered to be, after employment, the second factor of social integration. In 2009, across the EU27, almost 6 % of Europeans suffered from severe housing deprivation and in Poland, Lithuania, Slovenia, Bulgaria, and Latvia this percentage reached more than 15 % of the population, rising to a high of 28.6 % in Romania. In 2009, 12.1 % of the EU27 population lived in households that spent 40 % or more of their disposable income on housing. Postwar housing developments for poor and working-class residents go through radical renewal schemes endowing them with systems that enhance ecological performance and are socially uplifting and architecturally compelling.

Homelessness is a serious challenge for cities (Eurocities 2009). In the United States, housing and the homelessness crisis has worsened over the past 2 years. By some estimates, more than 311,000 tenants nationwide have been evicted from homes the year preceding the crisis. As more people fall into homelessness, local service providers are facing an increase in the demand for services. In Denver, nearly 30 % of the homeless population are recently homeless. Of the 25 cities surveyed by the U.S. Conference of Mayors for its annual Hunger and Homelessness Report, 19 reported an increase in homelessness in 2010. On average, cities reported a 12 % increase. The lack of available shelter space leaves many homeless citizens with no choice but to struggle to survive on the urban streets and public spaces (U.S. Conference of Mayors 2010).

Even though most cities do not provide enough affordable housing, shelter space, and food to meet citizen needs, many cities use the criminal justice system to punish those trying to survive on the street. In response to the homelessness crisis, the U.S. National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty and the National Coalition for the Homeless released the report “Homes Not Handcuffs,” tracking the criminalization of homelessness, a dangerous growing trend in cities. The list of “meanest cities” has been proposed to name and shame cities that have even enacted food-sharing restrictions that punish groups and individuals for serving homeless people. Many of these measures appear to have the purpose of moving the homeless out of sight, if not out of the city.

European Union leaders have pledged to bring at least 20 million people out of poverty and exclusion by 2020 and created the European platform against poverty and social exclusion to work at all levels in order to help reach the agreed target. Key challenges include the eradication of child poverty, the active inclusion in society and the labor market of the most vulnerable groups, the provision of decent housing for everyone, the social integration of people with disabilities, ethnic minorities, and other vulnerable groups, including the Roma. In Poland, the Magic Mountain Foundation provides opportunities for each and every person to climb his or her own Everest.

In the European Union, children represent 26 % of the vulnerable population at risk of poverty or social exclusion. Single parents with dependent children face high risk, although they represent only 2 % of the total population. They constitute an obvious target group for focused action. Cities could complement and strengthen fragile family structures through social networks, services, and associations. Schools and urban institutions should strive together in order that vulnerable children understand the indivisible rights and duties to the city, and benefit from the opportunities that they are offered to learn and grow.

On the other end of the age spectrum, city policies may influence considerably the decision whether to retire or remain in the labor market. The working population in the European Union is projected to age significantly in the coming decades and the age-dependency ratio will increase sharply. In combination with falling fertility rates, living longer will pose a major risk to the sustainability of the European model.

Intergenerational cities are the ones in which every generation brings its best to the service of all. The rights of the elderly are enshrined in the Treaty for the Functioning of the European Union. Active ageing policies should not be limited to removing financial disincentives but should include supportive measures such as discouraging early retirement, stimulating learning and training to avoid skills obsolescence, adapting working conditions to the specific characteristics of older adults, valuing volunteer work, promoting good health of older workers, and providing care for the elderly, while making them useful to the community. Universities for the elderly expand their offer for sustainable development to include a great variety of courses of interest to older adults and cities can sponsor courses that have a special interest for communities.

Intergenerational solidarity is an essential dimension of sustainable cities. The generation project in Portugal emerged from the need to improve the prospects of youths in the deprived community of Amadora, on the periphery of Lisbon. Activities range from work and play for the very young, enabling parents to stay in full-time employment, to a number of programs working with children to encourage them to stay in education. The “If You Keep Studying” project provides education and training in the fields of martial arts and a youth orchestra. This orchestra, based on the Orquestra Sinfónica Simón Bolívar of Venezuela, has incubated 10 orchestras in the Lisbon area over the last 2 years. And the journey continues (EC 2010a).

The 2012 European year for active ageing and solidarity between generations suggested that, instead of creating conflict over scarce resources, ageing could be turned into an opportunity and provide Europeans with the possibility to contribute to community life and keep a live contact with younger generations. In order to address this challenge, older people should be encouraged and assisted to remain active longer, not least in order to generate a desirable outcome in an efficient and equitable way. Older scientists have a precious capital to transfer to younger generations, as have older leaders and businessmen, artists, and simple citizens wishing to share and transmit. The noble cause of sustainable development could provide a shared value to adhere and make a transgenerational contribution.

Innovative partnerships involving the most key stakeholders can best address complex situations and groups in society, and stimulate bottom-up and mutual-trust approaches to help integrate the most excluded. Schemes empowering poor women, through microenterprise development and strategic initiatives of promoting gender-­inclusive value chains, market linkages, and training in vocational and business skills in backward urban neighborhoods, are most promising. The Suikeroom project in Amsterdam is a fund for ethnic start-up companies financed by established companies. The fund was created in 2006 to help ethnic minority entrepreneurs, conside­red as potential profit makers to start a business successfully. Entrepreneurs receive guidance in preparing a solid business plan and are introduced to investors (Eurocities 2010).

The social economy enterprises demonstrated a better resilience to the financial crisis compared to conventional enterprises. This resilience is a good indicator of their capacity to sustain their economic activities and jobs even in hard times or to engage in markets with a growth potential. They can create and maintain sustainable enterprises and contribute to local development and social cohesion. Cities can increase awareness of the role of social economy and develop a favorable environment for social enterprises that incorporate sustainability and women and/or minorities empowerment values.

Innovation in urban social policies can have impressive results for the active inclusion of citizens. Eurocities presented a collection of innovative strategies of nine network members including Birmingham, Bologna, Brno, Copenhagen, Krakow, Lille Metropole-Roubaix, Rotterdam, Sofia, and Stockholm discussing their projects to promote social inclusion. The practices highlight that new social trends and challenges constantly prompt local governments to adapt and develop new ways to achieve active inclusion (Eurocities 2010).

In Rome, the Consiglieri Aggiunti (additional councillors) are elected representatives of migrant communities legally residing in Rome and registered on the voting list. These councillors act as essential consultation contact points within their respective communities.

Four of them, representing migrants from the four continents (Africa, America, Asia, and Europe), sit on the city council and take part in all its activities, although not entitled to vote on the decisions of the council. In addition, there are 18 consiglieri aggiunti representing foreigners in the district councils.

6.3 Integration of Immigrants and Minorities in Cosmopolises

Migration is one of the defining global issues of the twenty-first century, with a high potential and impact. The United Nations defines migrants as citizens residing in a foreign country for more than 1 year. In the world of 7 billion people, at least 214 million are living outside their countries of birth. According to the International Organization of Migration, the movement of people has not been affected by the global crisis and is likely to become even more significant in the future, as a result of continued globalization, demographic challenges, and economic imbalances (IOM 2011).

One in 33 world citizens is a migrant. The total number of international migrants has increased over the first decade of the millennium and reached 3.1 % of the world population. If migrants were a country, it would rank fifth in the world according to the number of inhabitants. An estimated 64 million (or 9 % of the population) immigrants live in Europe. In North America and Oceania percentages are higher. Migration is a key feature of the increasingly interdependent world and enables the exchange of talents, services, skills, and experiences (IOM 2011).

The world population of migrants is expected to reach nearly 250 million migrants in 2025, of which 65 % are established in developed countries and especially in cities. Foresight studies emphasize that international migration will increase and counterbalance demographic dynamics. Without a significant influx of immigrants, the decline of the European population is irreversible (EC 2009e).

During 2009, about three million people immigrated into one of the EU member states, marking a substantial decline as compared with 2008. However, it is difficult to quantify exactly the magnitude of this decline and its possible relationships to the crisis as some countries, including Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands, have modified the underlying definitions of migration. The United Kingdom reported the largest number of immigrants, more than half a million in 2009, followed by Spain with half a million and Italy with a little less. These three countries recorded over half of all immigrants into EU member states. It should also be noted that these figures do not represent the migration flows to/from the European Union as a whole. However, more than half of the immigrants into the EU member states, an estimated 1.6 million people in 2009, were previously residing outside the European Union.

The motivations and the incentives, the opportunities and associated risks, and the potential for migration to benefit labor balances and development have been the subject of many analyses. Migrants are primarily driven by economic or political reasons. In the future migrants would probably also move more for educational, cultural, and ecological reasons, including ecological causes related to natural disasters due to climate change. From refugees and asylum seekers to expats, the spectrum of immigration is increasingly diversified and defies standardized mass approaches.

The immigrant population predominantly concentrates in large cities. Migrants expect cities to offer them exciting new beginnings. It is estimated that 16 % of immigrants in France live in the Paris agglomeration. Another characteristic trend in many cities is the formation of ethnic mosaics attracting immigrants from the same culture in particular neighbourhoods. Openness of these districts and interactions with the city are essential for the city to prevent ghettoization and exclusion.

Welcoming migrants is a challenge for many cities of the more developed countries. Cities often experience tensions between spatial proximity and cultural distance, linked to the coexistence of migrants with other very diverse established social groups. A more selective and better integrated immigration would be more beneficial. Education, housing, health, sports, culture, and local politics are the sectors with the highest potential for the integration of migrants in the city (EC 2008a).

Amsterdam, the European capital of tolerance, has been one of the best examples, since its golden age, of openness and willingness to accept and integrate foreigners considered to be a source of prosperity and progress for the city. Political emigrants, workers, and intellectuals of every race and belief have always lived side by side with the local population. Plurality, a key element in European civilization, has played an important role in the development of the city and the formation of its grassroots.

A politically sensitive issue, migration requires public authorities to clear up stereotypes and misunderstandings. Cities can play a role in changing the perception of migrants both in the societies of origin and destination and forge solidarity bonds among world communities. Social services and innovative projects involving young emigrants can have a great deal of impact. Interfaith cultural centers and events in many disadvantaged suburbs help minorities coexist harmoniously. The organization of exceptional events, such as interreligious open days, can stimulate dialogue among populations that do not usually communicate among themselves.

Lyon intra muros, promoted as a city of confluences, is an example of a city that has always been a welcome land for migrants from Mediterranean, Asian, European, and African countries. The “small Lyon” has its migrant neighborhoods, nine official districts, comprising vast housing areas on the western outskirts of the city and a fascinating inner quarter, the Guillotière, a lively, colorful, cosmopolitan neighborhood known as the gate of the city where newcomers traditionally arrive. Lyon was also the first city to sign in 2005 the Diversity Charter with 35 companies in the region, to promote active nondiscrimination in the professional world.

The knowledge-based green economy can create jobs for migrants and the disadvantaged. Dublin offers an interesting example of a city that did not know the sense of immigration until the early 1990s. The phenomenon of the Celtic tiger, with a rapidly growing economy over the period 1995–2005, not only created jobs for the unemployed, but attracted many migrant workers in a country much more familiar with emigration. Once the Celtic tiger expired, many immigrants, mainly from Eastern Europe, chose to remain and form 10 % of the population of Dublin. And although the economic decline had slowed or even prevented new migration, the city could count on a more diverse and qualified labor force for the green economy.

If cities wish to attract talent in a competitive world, they should create a “welcoming culture,” based on tolerance and understanding, solidarity, and equal opportunities. Cities play an essential role in the integration of newcomers. The settlement and integration of newcomers is a fundamentally local experience and the quality of the welcome has a huge influence on their future success and ultimately on the pro­sperity of the cities. With the support of the Maytree Foundation, cities started exchanging their experiences in welcoming migrants and contributed to over 100 good ideas in integration about cities that have been enriched by the energy and opportunity of immigration flows. Each good idea includes success steps, resources, and data to help practitioners and policy makers (Fundación Bertelsmann and Cities of Migration 2012).

Socioeconomic integration can start with music or dance, video, or soccer. The universal languages of art or sports can forge bonds among populations divided by mother tongue and tradition and help the integration of young migrants or refugees while fostering a sense of connection and belonging. Like music, sports have the power to overcome cultural and ethnic differences, and to rally a community. In Auckland, soccer has been used as a strategic tool to reduce the social isolation of young refugees and to help them feel a sense of a bond, both with each other and the wider community. The Refugees in Sport Initiative was started in 2006 by Refugees as Survivors, a nonprofit refugee mental health agency in order to enable refugee youth to achieve better access into mainstream sports and a safe place to meet with others sharing and understanding their experience. The program has also expanded to offer other sports such as cricket and martial arts and to encourage girls from refugee backgrounds also to participate in both team and individual sports.

TODOS is an annual festival hosted since 2009 by the city of Lisbon, designed to promote cultural diversity and social cohesion, and build links with the local immigrant community. The event is focused on the Mouraria-Martim Moniz neighborhood, home to immigrants mainly from Bangladesh, Brazil, China, India, and Pakistan. The area has a reputation for crime, prostitution, and drugs. Through the TODOS festival, Lisbon invites all citizens to explore the neighborhood, meet the locals, and experience their lifestyles and cultures. The success of the festival depends on the participation of the immigrants, hosting and participating in events and classes designed to highlight their cultural heritages. Participants are also invited to visit local businesses and shops and see people in their daily activities. Portuguese artists work with the immigrant community, the homeless, schoolchildren, and youths to create theatrical happenings and exhibitions (Fundación Bertelsmann and Cities of Migration 2012).

6.4 From “Cloned Cities” to Safe, Healthy, and Fulfilling Urban Spaces

The sustainable city cannot exist without a human face and the sense of community. Solidarity constitutes the ultimate ethos of the social architecture of any city that does not accept being a fragmented web of cloned spaces, without a particular identity or character. Dysfunctional “noncities” suffer from various forms of urban distress. Impacts are both invisible and visible. Environmental degradation, physical isolation, obsolete housing infrastructure, and neglect of public spaces go hand in hand with poor education, unemployment, weak health, and violence. Social innovations responding to social needs, addressing social challenges and improving social conditions are crucial for creating fulfilling neighborhoods.

The choice and promise neighborhoods in the United States can inspire (Obama 2009). People living in communities infected by poverty have a greater risk of being excluded. Policy interest in comprehensive community initiatives has surged with two federal comprehensive place-based programs, the Department of Education’s Promise Neighborhoods, modeled on the acclaimed Harlem Children’s Zone and the Department of Housing and Urban Development’s Choice Neighborhoods program. They both intend to address vital local needs with the active participation of the targeted population.

Promise neighborhoods tried to foster a culture that creates a cradle-through-­college-to-career continuum and promotes multiple positive effects across sectors. Neighborhood students have to be safe, healthy, and successful, and improve their life prospects through coordinated community efforts. Choice neighborhoods focus on communities dependent on social housing to be transformed into communities of opportunity with good-quality affordable housing and high-performing schools and services. Both programs intend to become self-sufficient and continue after the end of federal funding. The contextual dynamics of the local communities are crucial in shaping the transformation effort. Credible evaluations have to assess the overall benefits of the communities in addition to those directly participating in the programs (Urban Institute 2011).

Choice Neighborhoods includes an unprecedented focus on access to quality educational opportunities. The US Departments of Housing and Urban Development and of Education worked together to develop the program, requiring Choice applicants to have an education strategy that “expands access to high-quality early learning schools, and education that will improve key outcomes for children and youth in the neighborhoods.” Many cities can get inspiration from various elements of the program to ascend the learning and performance curve.

The Chicago Choice proposal included plans to cooperate with the University of Chicago, which is making a number of major investments in the neighborhood including opening the doors of its high performing Laboratory High School to neighborhood residents. The plan also invests in the Woodlawn Children’s Promise Community, a project for turning around poor performing schools and enriching children’s academic experience.

The Choice Neighborhoods’ planning grant application included a set-aside for organizations receiving a Promise Neighborhoods planning grant, and the 2011 Promise Neighborhoods’ planning and implementation competitions include a competitive preference for neighborhoods that were the subject of an affordable housing transformation funded by Choice Neighborhoods. Additionally, the two programs share consistent requirements and outcome metrics.

Aligned Choice and Promise Neighborhoods investments are exemplified in Boston and Atlanta. In Boston’s Choice implementation site, the housing redeve­lopment strategy is a key element of the city’s Circle of Promise Initiative, a comprehensive integration plan to transform public education. Similarly, Boston Public Schools focus on improving instruction in schools within the Choice footprint through interventions such as extended learning, improved data integration, and community engagement. The Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative received a Promise Neighborhoods planning grant for part of the same neighborhood and is expected to leverage the Choice funding to bring partners such as ReadBoston, and the City of Boston together to better coordinate student-focused literacy, health, and violence-prevention programs.

In Atlanta, organizations received both Choice and Promise Neighborhoods planning grants to focus on the same neighborhoods. The City of Atlanta’s Choice planning grant helps revitalize its University Homes public housing development, and its Promise grant harnessing the talents of Atlanta’s historically black colleges and universities aims at providing educational opportunities to children living in the University Center neighborhood.

Public well-being and security are also major challenges for governments, cities, and regions. Improving security through biological research becomes possible because a genome provides a definitive signature for an organism and can be used to distinguish an organism from all others. The US Department of Homeland is developing a genomics-based approach to microbial forensic analysis to allow identification and characterization of any microbial organism, including “unknown” organisms such as emerging, chimeric, or synthetic organisms. This involves deve­lopment and refinement of several intersecting technologies, including bioinformatic analysis, the study of metagenomics, and comparative genomics.

Urban environments can play a decisive role in combating chronic disease deve­lopment. Being overweight and obesity are strongly linked to diseases such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and some types of cancer. Since the late 1980s, many countries and cities have reported a growing epidemic of obesity. Studies in India and China and other developing countries around the world have also illustrated that obesity, diabetes, and hypertension seem to increase in tandem with rapid urbanization and pointed to “obesogenic” predominantly urban environments, as a risk factor. In fact, cities often focus on convenience and minimal-effort physical activity. The dense urban transport network, the handy services, and the absence of adequate recreational spaces, parks, and athletic facilities do not invite exercise and a healthy life (Institute of Medicine 2012).

Cities could play a major role in addressing the overweight and obesity epidemic that becomes a public health issue of monumental importance, both because of the huge number of people it affects and the possible multiple ripple effects on the development of serious and chronic diseases. Obesity is a major contributor to health care costs in the United States which may increasingly become unaffordable. Individuals, families, and communities have to be empowered to work for change and cities can support in many ways their efforts to achieve and maintain a healthy weight. If a community has no safe places to walk or play, lacks outlets offering affordable healthy food, and is bombarded by advertisements for unhealthy foods and beverages, citizens have fewer propensities to engage in physical activity and adopt eating behaviors to achieve and maintain a healthy weight (Institute of Medicine 2012).

To make physical activity an integral part of everyday life, cities should make it a priority by substantially increasing access to places and opportunities for such activity. They could also make creative partnerships with the private sector and local businesses to create healthy food and beverage environments that ensure that healthy options are the routine easy choice. Cities could develop and support a sustained, targeted physical activity and nutrition social marketing program. And finally, they should partner with schools in which so many health and environmental projects begin. Pupils are perfect entry points to approach families but also teachers. Schools could be perfect focal points for obesity prevention, ensuring that all students have adequate opportunities to engage in physical activity and access to nutrition literacy, including skill development, and healthier food and beverage options at affordable competitive prices.

The Cork Environmental Forum worked with Green Schools and the SMILE program to improve schoolchildren’s mobility and lifestyle patterns. Over the last 20 years car ownership in Ireland has grown hugely, resulting in children being driven to school. This dependence on the private car has resulted in traffic chaos outside school gates at morning and afternoon peaks, safety problems, and overweight or even obese children. The Cork city council decided to reverse these trends and promote alternative mobility modes that are healthier and more environmentally friendly. After the analysis of census data on travel modes, the city identified six schools, primary and secondary, with a potential for increased commuting in the forms of walking and cycling. Through collaboration with key stakeholders, especially children, parents, and teachers, school travel plans were designed to promote more sustainable transport to school. The measures included the development of walking, buses, the promotion of park-and-stride and installation and/or upgrading of infrastructure, such as pedestrian crossings, pavement improvements, bicycle racks at schools, disabled access, and speed control zones.

Public health is not merely the absence of epidemics or disease, but it is a state of complete public physical, mental, and social well-being. A healthy city is a committed city, promoting public health high on its political agenda. The European Healthy Cities movement includes cities that have developed and implemented a wide range of policies, including health profiles and city health plans and strategies through community initiatives and programs that address the needs of vulnerable groups, environmental health, cultural lifestyles, and Agenda 21.

Openness of global cities to movement of people may make them more fragile to the spread of infectious diseases. Singapore suffered from the two major epidemics of recent years, the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the H1N1 virus (swine flu), both imported. Three months following its identification in Mexico in April 2009, the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus became a global pandemic affecting practically every country. In Singapore, researchers tracked the transmission of the virus by looking for antibodies, a type of immune response to infection. They found a rate of infection in the general population of 13 %, and identified public transport as a risk environment.

The Zagreb Declaration expresses the strong commitment of political leaders of cities to bolster and champion action on health, health equity, sustainable development, and social justice. It celebrates and builds on 20 years of knowledge, experience, and public health accomplishments of the European Healthy Cities movement. It reconfirms values and priorities and identifies new challenges and approaches for cities to address and adopt as they work to protect and enhance the health and well-being of all their citizens. The Healthy Cities network, initiated and supported by the World Health Organization (WHO), is already in its fifth 4-year phase (2009–2013) and promotes government policies at all levels supporting and benefiting from urban public health (WHO 2009).

Urban safety is a critical dimension of well-being in cities. Cities, democracy, and safety, together with the future of prevention are the main foci of work of the European Forum of Urban Safety. The “Cities’ Manifesto for Safety and Democracy”, adopted in Naples in 2000 by 250 cities, expressed the desideratum for quality cities, defined as safe vital places of harmonious development and immune to insecurity and fearfulness, violence, and fanaticism. Recurrent issues include violence against vulnerable social groups and sensitive places such as schools and streets. The exchange of experience and cooperation are judged essential for guaranteeing the legitimate right to safety (EFUS 2003, 2006).

In Boston, property and violent crime declined over the first decade of the millennium, extending a steady drop since the last peak in 2001. However, citywide averages obscure a sharp increase in youth violence and homicides in geographic hotspots for which new policing practices and a 5-year public–private initiative have launched the “StreetSafe” Boston, a partnership targeting youth and particularly gang-related ­violence, even in the face of tightening budgets (Boston Foundation 2011).

Art for all in the street has often been used as a weapon. Graffiti attacks have been a postmodern way of addressing public spaces and private property. An innovative integrated approach, developed in Maastricht, included enhanced means to identify the offenders, education programs to improve their potential skills, and an antigraffiti bus with formerly unemployed people specialized in removing graffiti. The city made a wall available to all citizens wishing to express themselves through the art of graffiti. The project proved very successful and led to the dramatic decrease of the graffiti in Maastricht. It also had a noticeable effect on preventing recidivism. Moreover, former offenders trained in graffiti techniques have become creative artists.

The well-being of children is a litmus test for future urban societies. Each local place can make a difference. In OECD countries, concern for children’s well-being has shifted away from communicable diseases to issues of broader well-being, abilities, and experiences to lead a successful and happy life. Children’s use of space and time has changed in the last few decades. Inhabiting a shrinking space, spending more time indoors, a feature also favored by the increasing availability of home entertainment, can have a high impact on future lives. The quality of the home environment and surrounding outdoor space is therefore of vital importance to children’s well-being (OECD 2009b).

Housing quality is important to children’s socioemotional and mental health, cognitive development, and respiratory health. Residential noise levels from street or air traffic seem to be particularly problematic for children’s physical and mental health. Children with attention deficit disorders seem to function better after activities in green playground areas. Other examples show that children living in high-­rise blocks are more likely to suffer mental health problems than their counterparts in dense row housing. Context and culture are, however, very important inasmuch as high-rise living is the norm in many countries and there are very different expectations in terms of perceived and desired urban density.

Good neighborhood design could support children-friendly communities. Proximity and accessibility of green open spaces to residential areas is linked to increased overall levels of physical activity across age groups. Urban parks provide many opportunities for children and youths to play, exercise, explore nature, and interact with different people. Walking and cycling activity could be supported by built-environment attributes such as frequency of sidewalks, pedestrian crossings, and cycle tracks and the quality of recreation facilities. Safety and urban mix are also important factors in encouraging children’s physical activity.

Governments should be more proactive in providing and shaping the built environment to promote children’s well-being. Greenery is beneficial, whether experienced in the immediate residential environment, or even viewed through windows. Children’s contact with greenery and trees in the built environment seems to be linked to a range of physical, mental, developmental, and emotional benefits, inclu­ding reduced aggression, alleviation of stress, stimulation of creative play, and social interactions.