Abstract
Humans have been coevolving with three types of ectoparasitic sucking lice for millions of years. Head lice live primarily on the head and often cause undue anxiety and stress to parents of infected children. Body or clothing lice, as the name implies, live primarily in the clothing. They are generally bigger than head lice and can transmit deadly diseases. Pubic lice are sexually transmitted and are primarily found in the pubic region. An upside to the close association humans have with these parasites is that we are able to use the lice to learn about human evolutionary history. For example, understanding the biology of early humans has been historically challenging. Although fossils have provided evidence of the morphological changes that have occurred since the split between humans and chimpanzees, it has been much more difficult to study other attributes of early humans such as behavior or habitat use. Parasitic lice have provided some of this missing information. Herein we review what has been learned about human and primate evolution and behavior through studies of lice. We examine in detail the biology of the human pubic louse, which was transferred from a gorilla ancestor to a human ancestor about 3–4 million years ago. This particular host switch provides evidence of when humans lost their body hair and what habitats these early humans were using.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Amaral LQ (1996) Loss of body hair, bipedality and thermoregulation: comments on recent papers in the journal of human evolution. J Hum Evol 30:357–366
Amevigbe MDD, Ferrer A, Champorie S, Monteny N, Deunff J, Richard-Lenoble D (2000) Isoenzymes of human lice: Pediculus humanus and P. capitis. Med Vet Entomol 14:419–425
Anderson AL, Chaney E (2009) Pubic lice (Pthirus pubis): history, biology and treatment vs. knowledge and beliefs of US college students. Int J Environ Res Public Health 6:592–600
Andersson JO, Andersson SG (2000) A century of typhus, lice and Rickettsia. Res Microbiol 151:143–150
Angelakis E, Rolain JM, Raoult D, Brouqui P (2011) Bartonella Quintana in head louse nits. FEMS Immunol Med Mic 62(2):244–246
Bonilla DL, Kabeya H, Henn J, Kramer VL, Kosoy MY (2009) Bartonella quintana in body lice and head lice from homeless persons, San Francisco, California, USA. Emerg Infect Dis 15(6):912–915
Bonnefille R (2010) Cenozoic vegetation, climate changes and hominid evolution in tropical Africa. Glob Planet Change 72:390–411
Bonnefille R, Potts R, Chalié F, Jolly D, Peyron O (2004) High-resolution vegetation and climate change associated with Pliocene Australopithecus afarensis. Proc Natl Acad Sci 101:12125–12129
Brace CL, Montagu A (1977) Human evolution, 2nd edn. Macmillan, New York
Brunet M (2010) Two new Mio-Pliocene Chadian hominids enlighten Charles Darwin’s 1871 prediction. Phil Trans Roy Soc B 365:3315–3321
Brunet M, Beauvilain A, Coppens Y, Heintz E, Moutaye AHE, Pilbeam D (1995) The first australopithecine 2,500 kilometers west of the Rift Valley (Chad). Nature 378:273–275
Brunet M, Guy F, Pilbeam D, Mackaye HT, Likius A, Ahounta D, Beauvilain A, Blondel C, Bocherensk H, Boisserie J-R, De Bonis L, Coppens Y, Dejax J, Denys C, Duringer P, Eisenmann V, Fanone G, Fronty P, Geraads D, Lehmann T, Lihoreau F, Louchart A, Mahamat A, Merceron G, Mouchelin G, Otero O, Campomanes PP, De Leon MP, Rage J-C, Sapanetkk M, Schusterq M, Sudrek J, Tassy P, Valentin X, Vignaud P, Viriot L, Zazzo A, Zollikofer C (2002) A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa. Nature 418:145–151
Burgess IF (1995) Human lice and their management. Adv Parasitol 36:271–342
Burgess IF (2004) Human lice and their control. Annu Rev Entomol 49:457–481
Burgess I, Maunder JW, Myint TT (1983) Maintenance of the crab louse, Pthirus pubis, in the laboratory and behavioral studies using volunteers. Community Med 5:238–241
Burkhart CN, Burkhart CG (2000) The route of head lice transmission needs enlightenment for proper epidemiologic evaluations. Int J Dermatol 39(11):878–879
Burkhart CN, Burkhart CG (2007) Fomite transmission in head lice. J Am Acad Dermatol 56:1044–1047
Bush SE, Rock AN, Jones SL, Malenke JR, Clayton DH (2011) Efficacy of the LouseBuster, a new medical device for treating head lice (Anoplura: Pediculidae). J Med Entomol 48(1):67–72
Busvine JR (1944) Simple experiments on the behaviour of body lice (Siphunculata). Proc Roy Ent Soc Lond 19:22–26
Busvine JR (1978) Evidence from double infestations for the specific status of human head lice and body lice (Anoplura). Syst Entomol 3:1–8
Buxton PA (1941) On the occurrence of the crab-louse (Phthirus pubis: Anoplura) in the hair of the head. Parasitology 33:117–118
Buxton P (1947) The louse an account of the lice which infest man, their medical importance and control. Edward-Arnold, London
Canyon DV, Spearce R, Muller R (2002) Spatial and kinetic factors for the transfer of head lice (Pediculus capitis) between hairs. J Invest Dermatol 119:629–631
Canyon DV, Speare R (2010) Indirect transmission of head lice via inanimate objects. Open Dermatol J 4:72–76
Chosidow O (2000) Scabies and pediculosis. Lancet 355:819–826
Cote SM (2004) Origins of the African hominoids: an assessment of the palaeobiogeographical evidence. CR Palevol 3:323–340
Darwin C (1871) The descent of man and selection in relation to sex, 2nd edn. John Murray, London
de Jong YA, Butynski TM (2010) Thre Sykes’s Monkey Cercopithecus mitis × Vervet Monkey Chlorocebus pygerythrus hybrids in Kenya. Primat Cons 25:43–56
Delson E, Tattersall I, Van Couvering J, Brooks A (2000) Encyclopedia of human evolution and prehistory. Garland, New York
Domínguez-Rodrigo M, Pickering TR, Bunn HT (2010) Configurational approach to identifying the earliest hominin butchers. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107(49):20929–20934
Domínguez-Rodrigo M, Pickering TR, Bunn HT (2011) Reply to McPherron et al.: Doubting Dikika is about data, not paradigms. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108(21):E117
Elgart ML, Higdon RS (1973) Pediculosis pubis of the scalp. Arch Dermatol 107:916–917
Elton S (2008) The environmental context of human evolutionary history in Eurasia and Africa. J Anat 212:377–393.
Fisher I, Morton RS (1970) Phthirus pubis infestation. Br J Vener Dis 46:326–329
Foley R (2002) Adaptive radiations and dispersals in hominin evolutionary ecology. Evol Anthropol Suppl 1:132–137
Frankowski BL, Bocchini JA (2010) Head lice. Pediatrics 126:392–403
Frankowski BL, Weiner LB (2002) Head lice. Pediatrics 110(3):638–643
Galik K, Senut B, Pickford M, Gommery D, Treil J, Kuperavage AJ, Eckhardt RB (2004) External and internal morphology of the BAR 1002’00 Orrorin tugenensis femur. Science 305(5689):1450–1453
Gao, F, Bailes E, Robertson DL, Chen Y, Rodenburg CM, Michael SF, Cummins LB, Arthur LO, Peeters M, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, Hahn, BH (1999) Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature 397:436–441
Glass B (1966) The evolution of hairlessness in man. Science 152:294
Goldberger J, Anderson JF (1912) The transmission of typhus fever, with especial reference to transmission by the head louse (Pediculus capitis). Public Health Rep 27(9):297–307
Gordon SC (2007) Shared vulnerability: a theory of caring for children with persistent head lice. J School Nurs 5:283–292
Green RE, Krause J, Briggs AW, Maricic T, Stenzel U, Kricher M, Patterson N, Li H, Zhai W, Fritz MH, Hansen NF, Durand EY, Malaspinas A, Jensen JD, Marques-Bonet T, Alkan C, Prüfer K, Meyer M, Burbano HA, Good JM, Schultz R, Aximu-Petri A, Butthof A, Höber B, Höffner B, Siegemund M, Weihmann A, Nusbaum C, Lander ES, Russ C, Novod N, Affourtit J, Egholm M, Verna C, Rudan P, Brajkovic D, Kucan Z, Gušic I, Doronichev VB, Golovanova LV, Lalueza-Fox C, Rasilla M, Fortea J, Rosas A, Schmitz RW, Johnson PLF, Eichler EE, Falush D, Birney E, Mullikin JC, Slatkin M, Nielsen R, Kelso J, Lachmann M, Reich D, Pääbo S (2010) A draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome. Science 328:710–722
Grine FE, Ungar P, Teaford MF, El-Zaatari S (2006) Molar microwear in Praeanthropus afarensis: evidence for dietary stasis through time and under diverse paleoecological conditions. J Hum Evol 51
Guthrie RD (1976) Body hot spots: the anatomy of human social organs and behavior. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
Guy F, Mackaye H-T, Likius A, Vignaud P, Schmittbuhl M, Brunet M (2008) Symphyseal shap variation in extant and fossil hominoids, and the symphysis of Australopithecus bahrelghazali. J Hum Evol 55:37–47
Haile-Selassie Y (2001) Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 412:178–181
Hansen RC, O’Havier JO (2004) Economic considerations associated with Pediculus humanus capitis infestation. Clin Ped 43:523–527
Heymann EW, Buchanan-Smith HM (2000) The behavioral ecology of mixed-species troops of callitrichine primates. Biol Rev 75:169–190
Hooke R (1665) Micrographia: or some physiological description of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and inquiries thereupon. Council Royal Society of London for Improving of Natural Knowledge, London
Howlett FM (1917) Notes on head- and body-lice and upon temperature reactions of lice and mosquitoes. Parasitology 10:186–188
Hypsa V (2006) Parasite histories and novel phylogenetic tools: alternative approaches to inferred parasite evolution from molecular markers. Int J Parasitol 36:141–155
Ihobe H (1990) Interspecific interactions between wild pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) and red colobus (Colobus badius). Primates 31:109–112
Kimbel WH, Delezene LK (2009) “Lucy” redux: a review of research on Australopithecus afarensis. Yearbk Phys Anthropol 52:2–48
Kimbel W, Lockwood CA, Ward CV, Leakey MG, Rak Y, Johanson DC (2006) Was Australopithecus anamensis ancestoral to A. afarensis? A case of anagenesis in the hominin fossil record. J Hum Evol 51:134–152
Kingdon J (1974) East African mammals: an altas of evolution in Africa. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Kingston JD (2007) Shifting adaptive landscapes: progress and challenges in reconstructing early hominid environments. Yearbk Phys Anthropol 50:20–58
Kirkness EF, Haas BJ, Sun W, Braig HR, Perotti MA, Clark JM et al (2010) Genome sequences of the human body louse and its primary endosymbiont provide insights into the permanent parasitic lifestyle. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107(27):12168–12173
Kittler R, Kayser M, Stoneking M (2003) Molecular evolution of Pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing. Curr Biol 13:1414–1417
Kittler R, Kayser M, Stoneking M (2004) Erratum molecular evolution of Pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing. Curr Biol 14:2309
Kunimatsu Y, Nakatsukasa M, Sawada Y, Sakai T, Hyodo M, Hyodo H, Itaya T, Nakaya H, Saegusa H, Mazurier A, Saneyoshi M, Tsujikawa H, Yamamoto A, Mbua E (2007) A new late Miocene great ape from Kenya and its implications for the origins of African great apes and humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci 104:19220–19225
Kuroda S, Nishihara T, Suzuki S, Oko RA (1996) Sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas in the Ndoki Forest, Congo. In: McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Nishida T (eds) Great ape societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 71–81
Kushlan JA (1985) The vestiary hypothesis of human hair reduction. J Hum Evol 14:29–32
Leakey MG, Spoor F, Brown FH, Gathogo PN, Kairie C, Leakey LN, McDougall I (2001) New hominin genus from eastern Africa shows diverse middle Pliocene lineages. Nature 410:433–440
Leo NP, Barker SC (2005) Unravelling the origins of the head lice and body lice of humans. Parasitol Res 98:44–47
Leo NP, Hughes JM, Yang X, Poudel SKS, Brogdon WG, Barker SC (2005) The head and body lice of humans are genetically distinct (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Pediculidae): evidence from double infestations. Heredity 95:34–40
Li W, Ortiz G, Fournier P-E, Gimenez G, Reed DL, Pittendrigh B et al (2010) Genotyping of human lice suggests multiple emergences of body lice from local head louse populations. PLoS Neglect Trop Dis 4(3):e641
Light JE, Toups MA, Reed DL (2008) What’s in a name: the taxonomic status of human head and body lice. Mol Phylogenet Evol 47(3):1203–1216
Light JE, Smith VS, Allen JM, Durden LA, Reed DL (2010) Evolutionary history of mammalian sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura). BMC Evol Biol 10:292
Lloyd L (1919) Lice and their menace to man. Frowde, Oxford
Luca F, Perry GH, Di Rienzo A (2010) Evolutionary adaptations to dietary changes. Annu Rev Nutr 30:291–314
Macho GA, Shimizu D (2010) Kinematic parameters inferred from enamal microstructure: new insights into the diet of Australopithecus anamensis. J Hum Evol 58:23–32
Mahoney SA (1980) Cost of locomotion and heat balance during rest and running from 0 to 55°C in a patas monkey. J Appl Physiol: Respirat Environ Exercise Physiol 49:789–800
McBrearty S, Jablonski NG (2005) First fossil chimpanzee. Nature 437:105–108
McHenry H (1994) Behavioral ecological implications of early hominid body size. J Hum Evol 27:77–87
McPherron SP, Alemseged Z, Marean CW, Wynn JG, Reed D, Geraads D, Bobe R, Béarat HA (2010) Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature 466:857–860
McPherron SP, Alemseged Z, Marean C, Wynn JG, Reed D, Geraads D, Bobe R, Bearat H (2011) Tool-marked bones from before the Oldowan change the paradigm. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108(21):E116
Meinking TL (1999) Infestations. Curr Probl Dermatol 11(3):75–118
Montagna W (1972) The skin of nonhuman primates. Am Zool 12:109–121
Murray ES, Torrey SB (1975) Virulence of Rickettsia prowazeki for head lice. Ann N Y Acad Sci 266:25–34
Newman RW (1970) Why man is such a sweaty and thirsty naked mammal: a speculative review. Hum Biol 42:12–27
Nieberding CM, Olivieri I (2007) Parasites: proxies for host genealogy and ecology? Trends Ecol Evol 22:156–165
Nuttall GHF (1918) The Biology of Phthirus pubis. Parasitology 10:383–405
Orion E, Matz H, Wolf R (2004) Ectoparasitic sexually transmitted diseases: scabies and pediculosis. Clin Dermatol 22:513–519
Pagel M, Bodmer W (2003) A naked ape would have few parasites. Proc Roy Soc Lond B Biol 270:S117–S119
Parola P, Fournier PE, Raoult D (2006) Bartonella quintana, lice, and molecular tools. J Med Entomol 43(5):787
Payot F (1920) Contribution a l’etude du Phthirus pubis. Bull Soc Vaud Sci Nat 53:127–161
Pickford M, Senut B, Ssemmanda I, Elepu D, Obwona P (1988) Premiers resultats de la mission de l’Uganda palaeontology expedition a Nkondo (Pliocene du bassin du lac Albert, Ouganda). CR Acad Sci II 306:315–320
Pickford M, Senut B, Gommery D, Treil J (2002) Bipedalism in Orrorin tugenensis revealed by its femora. Comptes Rendus Palevol 1(4):191–203
Pilbeam D, Gould SJ (1974) Size and scaling in human evolution. Science 186:892–901
Plumptre AJ (1994) The effects of trampling damage by herbivores on the vegetation of the Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda. Afr J Ecol 32:115–129
Pollack RJ, Kiszewski AE, Spielman A (2000) Overdiagnosis and consequent mismanagement of head louse infestations in North America. Pediatr Infect Dis J 19(8):689–693
Randall VA (1994) Androgens and human hair growth. Clin Endocrinol 40:439–457
Randall VA (2008) Androgens and hair growth. Dermatol Ther 21:314–328
Rantala MJ (1999) Human nakedness: adaptation against ectoparasites? Int J Parasitol 29: 1987–1989
Rantala MJ (2007) Evolution of nakedness in Homo sapiens. J Zool 271:1–7
Raoult D, Roux V (1999) The body louse as a vector of reemerging human diseases. Clin Infect Dis 29:888–911
Raoult D, Dutour O, Houhamdi L, Jankauskas R, Fournier P-E, Ardagna Y et al (2006) Evidence for louse-transmitted diseases in soldiers of Napoleon’s Grand Army in Vilnius. J Infect Dis 193:112–120
Reed KE (1997) Early hominid evolution and ecological change through the African Plio-Pleistocene. J Hum Evol 32:289–322
Reed DL, Hafner MS, Allen SK (2000) Mammalian hair diameter as a possible mechanism for host specialization in chewing lice. J Mammal 81:999–1007
Reed DL, Smith VS, Hammond SL, Rogers AR, Clayton DH (2004) Genetic analysis of lice supports direct contact between modern and archaic humans. PLoS Biol 2(11):e340
Reed DL, Light JE, Allen JM, Kirchman JJ (2007) Pair of lice lost or parasites regained: the evolutionary history of anthropoid primate lice. BMC Biol 5:7
Reed DL, Toups MA, Light JE, Allen JM, Flannigan S (2009) Lice and other parasites as markers of primate evolutionary history. In: Huffman M, Chapman C (eds) Primate parasite ecology: the dynamics and study of host-parasite relationships. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 231–250
Richmond BG, Jungers WL (2008) Orrorin tugenensis femoral morphology and the evolution of hominin bipedalism. Science 319:1662–1665
Rogers AR, Iltis D, Wooding S (2004) Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of body hair. Curr Anthropol 45:105–108
Rose MD (1977) Interspecific play between free ranging guerezas (Colobus guereza) and vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Primates 18:957–964
Sasaki T, Poudel SKS, Isawa H, Hayashi T, Seki N, Tomita T, Sawabe K, Kobayashi M (2006a) First molecular evidence of Bartonella quintana in Pediculus humanus capitis (Phthiraptera: Pediculidae, collected from Nepalese children. J Med Entomol 43(1):110–112
Sasaki T, Poudel SKS, Isawa H, Hayashi T, Seki N, Tomita T, Sawabe K, Kobayashi M (2006b) First molecular evidence of Bartonella quintana in Pediculus humanus capitis (Phthiraptera: Pediculidae), collected from Nepalese children. J Med Entomol 43(5):788
Schaller GB (1963) The Mountain Gorilla: ecology and behavior. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Schaller GB (1965a) The behavior of the Mountain Gorilla. In: DeVore I (ed) Primate behavior: field studies of monkeys and apes. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, pp 324–367
Schaller GB (1965b) Behavioral comparisons of the apes. In: DeVore I (ed) Primate behavior: field studies of monkeys and apes. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, pp 474–481
Schultz AH (1931) The density of hair in primates. Hum Biol 3:303–321
Schultz AH (1969) The life of primates. Universe Books, New York
Schwartz GG, Rosenblum LA (1981) Allometry of hair density and the evolution of human hairlessness. Am J Phys Anthropol 55:9–12
Smith RJ, Jungers WL (1997) Body mass in comparative primatology. J Hum Evol 32:523–559
Sockol MD, Raichlen DA, Pontzer H (2007) Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism. Proc Natl Acad Sci 104:12265–12269
Spoor F, Leakey MG, Leakey LN (2010) Hominin diversity in the Middle Pliocene of eastern Africa: the maxilla of KNM-WT 40000. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 365:3377–3388
Stanford CB (2006) The behavioral ecology of sympatric African apes: implications for understanding fossil hominoid ecology. Primates 47:91–101
Stafford (2008) Head lice: evidence-based guidelines based on the Stafford Report 2008 Update. Public Health Med Environ Group
Stoddart DM (1990) The scented ape: the biology and culture of human odour. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Strait DS, Grine FE (2004) Inferring hominoid and early hominid phylogeny using craniodental characters: the role of fossil taxa. J Hum Evol 47:399–452
Strait DS, Grine FE, Moniz MA (1997) A reappraisal of early hominid phylogeny. J Hum Evol 32:17–82
Struhsaker TT, Butynski TM, Lwanga JS (1988) Hybridization between redtail (Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti) and blue (C. mitis stuhlmanni) monkeys in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. In: Gautier-Hion A, Bourlière F, Gautier JP, Kingdon J (eds) A primate radiation: evolutionary biology of the African Guenons. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 477–497
Suwa G, Kono RT, Katoh S, Asfaw B, Beyene Y (2007) A new species of great ape from the late Miocene epoch in Ethiopia. Nature 448:921–924
Teaford MF, Ungar PS (2000) Diet and the evolution of the earliest human ancestors. Proc Natl Acad Sci 97:13506–13511
Tebruegge M, Pantazidou A, Curtis N (2011) What’s bugging you? An update on the treatment of head lice infestation. Arch Dis Child Educ Pract Ed 96:2–8
Thalmann O, Fischer A, Lankester F, Pääbo S, Vigilant L (2007) The complex evolutionary history of gorillas: Insights from genomic data. Mol Biol Evol 24:146–158
Toups MA, Kitchen A, Light JE, Reed DL (2011) Origin of clothing lice indicates early clothing use by anatomically modern humans in Africa. Mol Biol Evol 28(1):29–32
Ubelaker JE, Payne E, Allison VF, Moore DV (1973) Scanning electron microscopy of the human pubic louse, Pthirus pubis (Linnaeus, 1758). J Parasitol 59(5):913–919
Ungar P (2004) Dental topography and diets of Australopithecus afarensis and early Homo. J Hum Evol 46:605–622
Ungar PS, Scott RS, Grine FE, Teaford MF (2010) Molar microwear textures and the diets of Australopithecus anamensis and Australopithecus afarensis. Proc Roy Soc Lond B Biol 365:3345–3354
Verhaegen M, Puech P-F, Munro S (2002) Aquarboreal ancestors? Trends Ecol Evol 17:212–217
Waldeyer L (1900) Ein Fall von Phthirius pubis im Bereiche des behaarten Kopfes. Charite-Annalen, Berlin, XXV:494–499
Wheeler PE (1992) The influence of the loss of functional body hair on the water budgets of early hominids. J Hum Evol 23:379–388
White T (2003) Early hominids–diversity or distortion? Science 299:1994–1997
Whiteman NK, Parker PG (2005) Using parasites to infer host population history: a new rationale for parasite conservation. Anim Cons 8:175–181
Wilkinson RD, Steiper ME, Soligo C, Martin RD, Yang ZH, Tavare S (2011) Dating primate divergences through an integrated analysis of palaeontological and molecular data. Syst Biol 60(1):16–32
WoldeGabriel G, White TD, Suwa G, Renne P, de Heinzelin J, Hart WK, Heiken G (1994) Ecological and temporal placement of early Pliocene hominids at Aramis, Ethiopia. Nature 371:330–333
WoldeGabriel G, Ambrose SH, Barboni D, Bonnefille R, Bremond L, Currie B, DeGusta D, Hart WK, Murray AM, Renne PR, Jolly-Saad MC, Stewart KM, White TD (2009) The geological, isotopical, botanical, invertebrate and lower vertebrate surroundings of Ardipithecus ramidus. Science 326(5949):65e1–65e5
Wolfe ND, Dunavan CP, Diamond J (2007) Origins of major human infectious diseases. Nature 447(17):279–283
Yamagiwa J, Basabose AK (2006) Effects of fruit scarcity on foraging strategies of sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees. In: Hohmann G, Robbins M, Boesch C (eds) Feeding ecology in apes and other primates. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 73–96
Yamagiwa J, Maruhashi T, Yumoto T, Mwanza N (1996) Dietary and ranging overlap in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Zaire. In: McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Nishida T (eds) Great ape societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 82–98
Yotova V, Lefebvre JF, Moreau C, Gbeha E, Hovhannesyan K, Bourgeois S, Bédarida S, Azevedo L, Amorim A, Sarkisian T, Avogbe P, Chabi N, Dicko MH, Amouzou ESKS, Sanni A, Roberts-Thomson J, Boettcher B, Scott RJ, Labuda D (2011) An X-linked haplotype of Neanderthal origin is present among all non-African populations. Mol Biol Evol 28(7):1957–1962
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Allen, J.M., Worman, C.O., Light, J.E., Reed, D.L. (2013). Parasitic Lice Help to Fill in the Gaps of Early Hominid History. In: Brinkworth, J., Pechenkina, K. (eds) Primates, Pathogens, and Evolution. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7181-3_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7181-3_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-7180-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-7181-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)