Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Children and Adolescents

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Pediatric Anxiety Disorders

Part of the book series: Current Clinical Psychiatry ((CCPSY))

Abstract

Roughly half of children and adolescents exposed to significant trauma develop PTSD, yet in many at-risk populations in which trauma exposure is known, PTSD is frequently under diagnosed. Most reliable identification of PTSD involves assessment of trauma exposure information and symptomatology from multiple informants. Over the past two decades, tremendous strides have been made in the assessment and behavioral treatment of PTSD in children and adolescents. More work, however, is needed to determine optimal pharmacological intervention strategies, as well as integrative treatment approaches that can address the wide range of challenges faced by families of children with PTSD. This chapter reviews the diagnostic history of PTSD, epidemiological data, state-of-the-art assessment instruments and techniques, risk factors, evidence-based treatments, and promising practices and innovations. An illustrative case example is also presented to highlight various aspects and challenges in the diagnosis and treatment of childhood PTSD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  2. Finkelhor D, Ormrod R, Turner H, Holt M. Pathways to poly-victimization. Child Maltreat. 2009;14(4):316–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Kilpatrick DG, Ruggiero KJ, Acierno R, Saunders BE, Resnick HS, Best CL. Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: results from the National Survey of Adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2003;71(4):692–700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Copeland WE, Keeler G, Angold A, Costello EJ. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64:577–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. IIIth ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Marshall RD, Spitzer R, Liebowitz MR. Review and critique of the new DSM-IV diagnosis of acute stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(11):1677–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. III-R ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Acierno R. Should PTSD criterion A be retained? J Trauma Stress. 2009;22(5):374–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Witchen HU, Gloster A, Baeesdo K, Schonfeld S, Perkonigg A. Posttraumatic stress disorder: diagnostic and epidemiological perspectives. CNS Spectr. 2009;14:5–12.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Friedman MJ, Resick PA, Bryant RA, Brewin CR. Considering PTSD for DSM-V. 2011; (9):750-69.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Elhai JD, Ford JD, Ruggiero KJ, Frueh BC. Diagnostic alterations for post-traumatic stress disorder: examining data from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication and National Survey of Adolescents. Psychol Med. 2009;39(12):1957–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Scheeringa MS, Zeanah CH, Myers L, Putnam FW. New findings on alternative criteria for PTSD in preschool children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42(5):561–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Scheeringa MS, Zeanah CH, Myers L, Putnam FW. Predictive validity in a prospective follow-up of PTSD in preschool children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44(9):899–906.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Scheeringa MS, Wright MJ, Hunt JP, Zeanah CH. Factors affecting the diagnosis and prediction of PTSD symptomatology in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(4):644–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Scheeringa MS, Zeanah CH, Drell MJ, Larrieu JA. Two approaches to the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(2):191–200.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Cuffe SP, Addy CL, Garrison CZ, et al. Prevalence of PTSD in a community sample of older adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37(2):147–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52(12):1048–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Resnick HS, Kilpatrick DG, Dansky BS, Saunders BE, Best CL. Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1993;61(6):984–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Tolin DF, Foa EB. Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: a quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychol Bull. 2006;132(6):959–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Breslau N, Chilcoat HD, Kessler RC, Davis GC. Previous exposure to trauma and PTSD effects of subsequent trauma: results from the Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(6):902–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Stein MB, Walker JR, Hazen AL, Forde DR. Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: findings from a community survey. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(8):1114–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Brosky BA, Lally SJ. Prevalence of trauma, PTSD, and dissociation in court-referred adolescents. J Interpers Violence. 2004;19(7):801–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Davis L, Siegel LJ. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: a review and analysis. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2000;3:135–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Pat-Horenzyk R. Post-traumatic distress in Israeli adolescents exposed to the ongoing terrorism: selected findings from school-based screenings in Jerusalem and nearby settlements. J Aggress Maltreat Trauma. 2004;9:335–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Stallard P, Salter E, Velleman R. Posttraumatic stress disorder following road traffic accidents: a second prospective study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13:172–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Laufer A, Solomon Z. Gender differences in PTSD in Israeli youth exposed to terror attacks. J Interpers Violence. 2009;24(6):959–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Hunt KL, Martens PM, Belcher HM. Risky business: trauma exposure and rate of posttraumatic stress disorder in African American children and adolescents. J Trauma Stress. 2011;24(3):365–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD, Schultz LR, Davis GC, Andreski P. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55(7):626–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Ackerman PT, Newton JEO, McPherson WB, Jones JG, Dykman RA. Prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric diagnoses in three groups of abused children (sexual, physical, and both). Child Abuse Negl. 1998;22(8):759–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Dubner AE, Motta RW. Sexually and physically abused foster care children and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999;67(3):367–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Famularo R, Fenton T, Kinscherff R, Augustyn M. Psychiatric comorbidity in childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. Child Abuse Negl. 1996;20(10):953–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Grasso D, Boonsiri J, Lipschitz D, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder: the missed diagnosis. Child Welfare. 2009;88(4):157–76.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Kiser LJ, Heston J, Millsap PA, Pruitt DB. Physical and sexual abuse in childhood: relationship with post-traumatic stress disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1991;30(5):776–83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Kolko DJ, Hurlburt MS, Zhang J, Barth RP, Leslie LK, Burns BJ. Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children and adolescents referred for child welfare investigation. Child Maltreat. 2010;15(1):48–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Linning LM, Kearney CA. Post-traumatic stress disorder in maltreated youth: a study of diagnostic comorbidity and child factors. J Interpers Violence. 2004;19(10):1087–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Ruggiero K, McLeer SV, Dixon JF. Sexual abuse characteristics associated with survivor psychopathology. Child Abuse Negl. 2000;24(7):951–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Carpenter GL, Stacks AM. Developmental effects of exposure to intimate partner violence in early childhood: a review of the literature. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2009;31:831–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Abram KM, Teplin LA, Charles DR, Longworth SL, McClelland GM, Dulcan MK. Posttraumatic stress disorder and trauma in youth in juvenile detention. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(4):403–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Steiner H, Garcia IG, Matthews Z. Posttraumatic stress disorder in incarcerated juvenile delinquents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(3):357–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Wasserman GA, McReynolds LS, Ko SJ, et al. Screening for emergent risk and service needs among incarcerated youth: comparing MAYSI-2 and voice DISC-IV. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43(5):629–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Adam BS, Everett BL, O’Neal E. PTSD in physically and sexually abused psychiatrically hospitalized children. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 1992;23(1):3–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Craine LS, Henson CE, Colliver JA, MacLean DG. Prevalence of a history of sexual abuse among female psychiatric patients in a state hospital system. Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1988;39(3):300–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Gold SN. The relevance of trauma to general clinical practice. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 2004;41(4):363–373.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Stewart AJ, Steiman M, Cauce AM, Cochran BN, Whitbeck LB, Hoyt DR. Victimization and posttraumatic stress disorder among homeless adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43:325–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Gwadz MV, Nish D, Leonard NR, Strauss SM. Gender differences in traumatic events and rates of posttraumatic stress disorder among homeless youth. J Adolesc. 2007;30:117–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P, Peterson E. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48(3):216–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P, Peterson EL, Schultz LR. Sex differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(11):1044–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Krystinska K, Lester D. Post-traumatic stress disorder and suicide risk: a systematic review. Arch Suicide Res. 2010;14:1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Chemtob CM, Madan A, Berger P, Abramovitz R. Adolescent exposure to the World Trade Center attacks, PTSD symptomatology, and suicidal ideation. J Trauma Stress. 2011;24(5):526–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Clark DB, Lesnick L, Hegedus AM. Traumas and other adverse life events in adolescents with alcohol abuse and dependence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(12):1744–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Ford JD, Gelernter J, DeVoe JS, et al. Association of psychiatric and substance use disorder comorbidity with cocaine dependence severity and treatment utilization in cocaine-dependent individuals. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;99(1–3):193–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Macdonald A, Danielson CK, Resnick HS, Saunders BE, Kilpatrick DG. PTSD and comorbid disorders in a representative sample of adolescents: the risk associated with multiple exposures to potentially traumatic events. Child Abuse Negl. 2010;34(10):773–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Leibenluft E, Blair JR, Charney D, Pine DS. Irritability in pediatric mania and other childhood psychopathology. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;1008:201–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T. Psychiatric diagnoses of maltreated children: preliminary findings [see comments]. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31(5):863–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Livingston R, Lawson L, Jones JG. Predictors of self-reported psychopathology in children abused repeatedly by a parent. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32(5):948–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Hornstein NL, Putnam FW. Clinical phenomenology of child and adolescent dissociative disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31(6):1077–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. APA. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Putnam FW. Dissociative disorders in children: behavioral profiles and problems. Child Abuse Negl. 1993;17(1):39–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Nurcombe B, Mithchell W, Begtrip R, Tramontaria M, LaBasbera J, Pruitt J. Dissociative hallucinations in allied conditions. In: Volkmar F, editor. Psychoses and pervasive developmental disorders in childhood and adolescence. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1996. p. 107–28.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Clayton S, Retano A, Wongchaowart B. Case study: trauma-related hallucinations. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(11):1602–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Perkonigg A, Pfister H, Stein MB, et al. Longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in a community sample of adolescents and young adults. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(7):1320–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Nugent NR, Saunders BE, Williams LM, Hanson R, Smith DW, Fitzgerald MM. Posttraumatic stress symptom trajectories in children living in families reported for family violence. J Trauma Stress. 2009;22(5):460–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Le Brocque RM, Hendrikz J, Kenardy JA. The course of posttraumatic stress in children: examination of recovery trajectories following traumatic injury. J Pediatr Psychol. 2010;35(6):637–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ballenger JC, Davidson JR, Lecrubier Y, et al. Consensus statement update on posttraumatic stress disorder from the international consensus group on depression and anxiety. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65 Suppl 1:55–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Lobb EA, Kristjanson LJ, Aoun SM, Monterosso L, Halkett GKB, Davies A. Predictors of complicated grief: a systematic review of empirical studies. Death Stud. 2010;34(8):673–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Saunders BE. Understanding children exposed to violence: toward an integration of overlapping fields. J Interpers Violence. 2003;18(4):356–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. McCart MR, Smith DW, Saunders BE, Kilpatrick DG, Resnick H, Ruggiero KJ. Do urban adolescents become desensitized to community violence? Data from a national survey. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2007;77(3):434–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Brewin CR, Andrews B, Valentine JD. Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68(5):748–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Pynoos RS, Steinberg AM, Piacentini JC. A developmental psychopathology model of childhood traumatic stress and intersection with anxiety disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;46(11):1542–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Lynskey M, Fergusson D. Factors protecting against the development of adjustment difficulties in young adults exposed to childhood sexual abuse. Child Abuse Negl. 1997;21:1177–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Boney-McCoy S, Finkelhor D. Psychosocial sequelae of violent victimization in a national youth sample. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1995;63(5):726–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Finkelhor D, Ormrod RK, Turner HA. Poly-victimization: a neglected component in child victimization. Child Abuse Negl. 2007;31(1):7–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Turner HA, Finkelhor D, Ormrod R. Poly-victimization in a national sample of children and youth. Am J Prev Med. 2010;38(3):323–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Ford JD, Wasser T, Connor DF. Identifying and determining the symptom severity associated with polyvictimization among psychiatrically impaired children in the outpatient setting. Child Maltreat. 2011;16(3):216–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Spinazzola J, Ford JD, Zucker M, et al. Survey evaluates complex trauma exposure, outcome, and intervention among children and adolescents. Psychiatr Ann. 2005;35(5):433–9.

    Google Scholar 

  76. McCauley JL, Danielson CK, Amstadter AB, et al. The role of traumatic event history in non-medical use of prescription drugs among a nationally representative sample of US adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2010;51(1):84–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Charuvastra A, Cloitre M. Social bonds and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annu Rev Psychol. 2008;59:301–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Valentino K, Berkowitz S, Stover CS. Parenting behaviors and posttraumatic symptoms in relation to children’s symptomatology following a traumatic event. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(3):403–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Kessler RC. Posttraumatic stress disorder: the burden to the individual and to society. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 5:4–12 (discussion 13–14).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Daviss WB, Mooney D, Racusin R, Ford JD, Fleischer A, McHugo GJ. Predicting posttraumatic stress after hospitalization for pediatric injury. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(5):576–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Ostrowski SA, Christopher NC, Delahanty DL. Brief report: the impact of maternal posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and child gender on risk for persistent posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in child trauma victims. J Pediatr Psychol. 2007;32(3):338–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Fremont WP. Childhood reactions to terrorism-induced trauma: a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43(4):381–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Crusto CA, Whitson ML, Walling SM, et al. Posttraumatic stress among young urban children exposed to family violence and other potentially traumatic events. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(6):716–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Ehlers A, Mayou RA, Bryant B. Cognitive predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder in children: results of a prospective longitudinal study. Behav Res Ther. 2003;41:1–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Aaron J, Zaglul H, Emery RE. Posttraumatic stress in children following acute physical injury. J Pediatr Psychol. 1999;24(4):335–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Springer C, Padgett DK. Gender differences in young adolescents’ exposure to violence and rates of PTSD symptomatology. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2000;70(3):370–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Crouch JL, Smith DW, Ezzell CE, Saunders B. Measuring reactions to sexual trauma among children: comparing the children’s impact of events scale and the trauma symptom checklist for children. Child Maltreat. 1999;4:255–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Feiring C, Taska L, Chen K. Trying to understand why horrible things happen: attribution, shame, and symptom development following sexual abuse. Child Maltreat. 2002;7(1):25–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Yehuda R, Halligan S, Bierer LM. Relationship of parental trauma exposure and PTSD to PTSD, depressive and anxiety disorders in offspring. J Psychiatr Res. 2001;35:261–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Sack WH, Clarke GN, Seeley J. Posttraumatic stress disorder across two generations of Cambodian refugees. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34:1160–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Stein MB, Jang KL, Taylor S, Vernon PA, Livesley WJ. Genetic and environmental influences on trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: a twin study. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:1675–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Nugent NR, Amstadter AB, Koenen KC. Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder: informing clinical conceptualizations and promoting future research. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2008;148C(2):127–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Afifi TO, Asmundson GJ, Taylor S, Jang KL. The role of genes and environment on trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: a review of twin studies. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30(1):101–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Cornelis MC, Nugent NR, Amstadter AB, Koenen KC. Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder: review and recommendations for genome-wide association studies. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2010;12(4):313–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Johansen JP, Cain CK, Ostroff LE, LeDoux JE. Molecular mechanisms of fear learning and memory. Cell. 2011;147(3):509–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Johnson LR, McGuire J, Lazarus R, Palmer AA. Pavlovian fear memory circuits and phenotype models of PTSD. Neuropharmacology. 2012;62(2):638–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Mahan AL, Ressler KJ. Fear conditioning, synaptic plasticity and the amygdala: implications for posttraumatic stress disorder. Trends Neurosci. 2012;35(1):24–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Rougemont-Bucking A, Linnman C, Zeffiro TA, et al. Altered processing of contextual information during fear extinction in PTSD: an fMRI study. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2011;17(4):227–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Rauch SL, Shin LM, Phelps EA. Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: human neuroimaging research-past, present, and future. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;60(4):376–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Norrholm SD, Anderson KM, Olin IW, et al. Versatility of fear-potentiated startle paradigms for assessing human conditioned fear extinction and return of fear. Front Behav Neurosci. 2011;5(77):1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Grasso D, Simons R. Electrophysiological responses to threat in youth with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychol. 2012;90(1):88–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Karl A, Schaefer M, Malta LS, Dörfel D, Rohleder N, Werner A. A meta-analysis of structural brain abnormalities in PTSD. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(7):1004–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Hull AM. Neuroimaging findings in post-traumatic stress disorder: systematic review. Br J Psychiatry. 2002;181:102–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Woon FL, Hedges DW. Hippocampal and amygdala volumes in children and adults with childhood maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Hippocampus. 2008;18(8):729–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Kitayama N, Vaccarino V, Kutner M, Weiss P, Bremner JD. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2005;88(1):79–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Etkin A, Wagner TD. Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(10):1476–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Carrion VG, Haas BW, Garrett A, Song S, Reiss AL. Reduced hippocampal activity in youth with posttraumatic stress symptoms: an fMRI study. J Pediatr Psychol. 2010;35(5):559–69 (Special Issue: Health consequences of child maltreatment).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Carrion VG, Weems CF, Richert K, Hoffman BC, Reiss AL. Decreased prefrontal cortical volume associated with increased bedtime cortisol in traumatized youth. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;68(5):491–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Carrion VG, Weems CF, Watson C, Eliez S, Menon V, Reiss AL. Converging evidence for abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex and evaluation of midsagittal structures in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder: an MRI study. Psychiatr Res. 2009;172(3):226–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Ham B-J, Chey J, Yoon SJ, et al. Decreased N-acetyl-aspartate levels in anterior cingulate and hippocampus in subjects with post-traumatic stress disorder: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Eur J Neurosci. 2007;25(1):324–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. De Bellis MD, Baum AS, Birmaher B, et al. Developmental traumatology: I. Biological stress systems. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45(10):1259–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Jackowski AP, de Araújo CM, de Lacerda ALT, de Jesus Mari J, Kaufman J. Neurostructural imaging findings in children with post-traumatic stress disorder: brief review. Neurosciences. 2009;63(1):1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Pardini DA, Fite PJ, Burke JD. Bidirectional associations between parenting practices and conduct problems in boys from childhood to adolescence: the moderating effect of age and African-American ethnicity. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2008;36(5):647–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Strand VC, Sarmiento TL, Pasquale LE. Assessment and screening tools for trauma in children and adolescents: a review. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2005;6(1):55–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Stover CS, Berkowitz S. Assessing violence exposure and trauma symptoms in young children: a critical review of measures. J Trauma Stress. 2005;18(6):707–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Bernstein D, Ahluvalia T, Pogge D, Handelsman L. Validity of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire in an adolescent psychiatric population. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(3):340–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Wolfe VV, Birt J. The feelings and emotions experienced during sexual abuse scale. London: London Health Sciences Center; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Finkelhor D, Hamby SL, Ormrod R, Turner H. The Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire: reliability, validity, and national norms. Child Abuse Negl. 2005;29(4):383–412.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Greenwald R, Rubin A. Brief assessment of children’s post-traumatic symptoms: development and preliminary validation of parent and child scales. Res Soc Work Pract. 1999;9:61–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Ford JD, Rascusin R, Rogers K, et al. Traumatic Events Screening Inventory for Children (TESI-C) Version 8.4. Hanover, NH: National Center for PTSD and Dartmouth Child Psychiatry Research Group; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Petty J. Checklist for child abuse evaluations. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Ammerman RT, Van Hasselt VB, Herson M. The child abuse and neglect interview schedule-revised. Pittsburgh: Western Pennsylvania School for Blind Children; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Friedrich WN, Grambsch P, Damon L, et al. Child sexual behavior inventory: normative and clinical comparisons. Psychol Assess. 1992;4(3):303–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Richters J, Salzman W. Survey of children’s exposure to community violence: self report version. Rockville: National Institute of Mental Health; 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Straus MA, Hamby SL, Boney-McCoy S, Sugarman DB. The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): development and preliminary psychometric data. J Fam Issues. 1996;17:283–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Fox NA, Levitt LA. Violence exposure scale for children-revised (VEX-R). College Park: Institute for Child Study, University of Maryland; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Kassam-Adams N. The Acute Stress Checklist for Children (ASC-Kids): development of a child self-report measure. J Trauma Stress. 2006;19(1):129–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Armstrong J, Putnam FW, Carlson EA, Libero D, Smith S. Developmental and validation of a measure of adolescent dissociation: the Adolescent Dissociative Experiences Scale. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1997;185(8):491–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Horowitz K, Weine S, Jekel J. PTSD symptoms in urban adolescent girls: compounded community trauma. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(10):1353–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Praver F, DiGiuseppe R, Pelcovitz D, Mandel FS, Gaines R. A preliminary study of a cartoon measure for children’s reactions to chronic trauma. Child Maltreat. 2000;5(3):273–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Putnam FW. Dissociation in children and adolescents: a developmental perspective. New York: Guilford; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Foa EB, Johnson K, Feeny N, Treadwell KR. The child PTSD symptom scale: a preliminary examination of its psychometric properties. J Clin Child Psychol. 2001;30(3):376–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Fletcher KE. Psychometric review of childhood PTSD interview. In: Stamm BH, editor. Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation. Lutherville: Sidran Press; 1996. p. 87–92.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Saigh PA, Yasik AE, Oberfield RA, et al. The children’s PTSD Inventory: development and reliability. J Trauma Stress. 2000;13(3):369–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Newman E, Weathers F, Nader K, Kalouped D, Pynoos R, Blake D. Clinician administered PTSD scale for children and adolescents (CAPS-CA). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  136. Delaware Division of Prevention and Behavioral Health Services. The Computer-Administered UCLA PTSD Reaction Index for DSM-IV [computer program]. Version 1.0. Willmington: State of Delaware; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Geller PA, Neugebauer R, Possemato AK, Walter P, Dummit ES, Silva RR. Psychometric properties of Darryl, a cartoon based measure to assess community violence-related PTSD in children. Psychiatr Q. 2007;78(2):157–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Richters J, Martinez P, Valla J. Levonn: a cartoon based interview for assessing children’s distress symptoms. Washington, DC: National Institute of Mental Health; 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Saylor CE, Swenson CC. The pediatric emotional distress scale: a brief screening measure for young children exposed to traumatic events. J Clin Child Psychol. 1999;28(1):70–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Wolfe VV, Wolfe D. The sexual abuse fear evaluation. London: London Health Sciences Center; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Briere J. Trauma symptom checklist for children (TSCC). Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Briere J, Johnson K, Bissada A, et al. The Trauma Symptom Checklist for Youth Children (TSCYC): reliability and association with abuse exposure in a multi-site study. Child Abuse Negl. 2001;25(8):1001–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Pynoos R, Rodriguez N, Steinberg AM, Stuber ML, Frederick C. The UCLA PTSD Reaction Index for DSM IV. Los Angeles: UCLA Trauma Psychiatry Program; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Cohen J, Mannarino A. The weekly behavior report: a parent-report instrument for sexually abused preschoolers. Child Maltreat. 1996;1:353–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Nader KO. Assessing traumatic experiences in children. In: Wilson JP, Keane TM, editors. Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. New York: Guilford Press; 1997. p. 291–348.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Ford JD, Racusin R, Ellis CG, et al. Child maltreatment, other trauma exposure and posttraumatic symptomatology among children with oppositional defiant and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders. Child Maltreat. 2000;5(3):205–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Bernstein D. A new screening measure for detecting ‘hidden’ domestic violence. Psychiatr Times. 1998;15(11):448–53.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Barnett D, Manly J, Cicchetti D. Defining child maltreatment: the interface between policy and research. In: Cicchetti D, Toth S, editors. Child abuse, child development, and social policy. Advances in applied developmental psychology, vol. 8. Norwood: Ablex; 1993. p. 7–74.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Hawkins SS, Radcliffe J. Current measures of PTSD for children and adolescents. J Pediatr Psychol. 2006;31(4):420–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Kaufman J, Jones B, Stieglitz E, Vitulano L, Mannarino AP. The use of multiple informants to assess children’s maltreatment experiences. J Fam Violence. 1994;9(3):227–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  151. De Los RA, Kazdin AE. Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: a critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychol Bull. 2005;131(4):483–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. Smith DW, McCart MR, Saunders BE. PTSD in children and adolescents: risk factors and treatment innovations. IN Delahanty: Douglas L. (Editor), the psychobiology of trauma and resilience across the lifespan; lanham, md: jason aronson, inc., The rowman & littlefield publishing group, 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Briere J. Trauma symptom checklist for children (TSCC): professional manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Cohen JA, Bukstein O, Walter H, et al. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescent with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(4):414–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ, Decker K, Pynoos RS. The University of California at Los Angeles post-traumatic stress disorder reaction index. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2004;6:96–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Delaware Division of Prevention and Behavioral Health Services. Computer-Administered UCLA PTSD Reaction Index for DSM IV [computer program]. Version 1.2. Newark: Delaware Division of Prevention and Behavioral Health Services; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  157. Angold A, Costello EJ. The Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(1):39–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Brent D, et al. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(7):980–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Reich W. Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(1):59–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Shaffer D, Fisher P, Lucas CP, Dulcan MK, Schwab-Stone ME. NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(1):28–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Egger H, Ascher B, Angold A. The Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA): a structured parent interview for diagnosing psychiatric disorders in preschool children. 1999. http://devepi.mc.duke.edu/papachapter.pdf.

  162. Briere J. Trauma symptom checklist for young children (TSCYC). Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  163. Gardner W, Kelleher KJ, Pajer KA, Campo JV. Primary care clinicians’ use of standardized tools to assess child psychosocial problems. Ambul Pediatr. 2003;3(4):191–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Zuckerbrot RA, Jensen PS. Improving recognition of adolescent depression in primary care. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:694–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Franklin CL, Sheeran T, Zimmerman M. Screening for trauma histories, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and subthreshold PTSD in psychiatric outcomes. Psychol Assess. 2002;14(4):467–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Miele D, O’Brien EJ. Underdiagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in at risk youth. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(5):591–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Cohen JA, Mannarino AB, Deblinger E. Treating trauma and traumatic grief in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford Press; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Murray LK. Trauma-focused CBT for youth who experience ongoing traumas. Child Abuse Negl. 2011;35(8):637–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Grasso DJ, Joselow B, Webb C. A clinical workbook for Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. Wilmington: State of Delaware; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  170. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Knudsen K. Treating sexually abused children: 1 year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Child Abuse Negl. 2005;29:135–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Knudsen K. Treating childhood traumatic grief: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43(10):1225–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Cohen JA, Deblinger E, Mannarino AP, Steer RA. A multisite, randomized controlled trial for children with sexual abuse-related PTSD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43(4):393–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Deblinger E, Stauffer LB, Steer RA. Comparative efficacies of supportive and cognitive behavioral group therapies for young children who have been sexually abused and their nonoffending mothers. Child Maltreat. 2001;6(4):332–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. King NJ, Tonge BJ, Mullen P, et al. Treating sexually abused children with posttraumatic stress symptoms: a randomized clinical trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(11):1347–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Deblinger E, Steer RA, Lippmann J. Two-year follow-up study of cognitive behavioral therapy for sexually abused children suffering post-traumatic stress symptoms. Child Abuse Negl. 1999;23(12):1371–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP. Interventions for sexually abused children: initial treatment outcome findings. Child Maltreat. 1998;3(1):17–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP. A treatment study for sexually abused preschool children: outcome during a one-year follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(9):1228–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP. A treatment outcome study for sexually abused preschool children: initial findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(1):42–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Deblinger E, Lippmann J, Steer R. Sexually abused children suffering posttraumatic stress symptoms: initial treatment outcome findings. Child Maltreat. 1996;1:310–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  180. Smith P, Yule W, Perrin S, Tranah T, Dalgleish T, Clark DM. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD in children and adolescents: a preliminary randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(8):1051–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Deblinger E, Mannarino AP, Cohen JA, Runyon MK, Steer RA. Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for children: impact of the trauma narrative and treatment length. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(1):67–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Iyengar S. Community treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder for children exposed to intimate partner violence: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2011;165(1):16–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Cohen JA, Berliner L, Mannarino A. Trauma focused CBT for children with co-occurring trauma and behavior problems. Child Abuse Negl. 2010;34(4):215–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Woody SR, Detweiler-Bedell J, Teachman BA, O’Hearn T. Treatment planning in psychotherapy: Taking the guesswork out of clinical care. NY: Guilford Press; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  185. Weisz JR, Chorpita BF, Frye A, et al. Youth top problems: using idiographic, consumer-guided assessment to identify treatment needs and to track change during psychotherapy. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2011;79(3):369–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Webb C, Grasso D, Hayes A, Laurenceau J-P. A community-based effectiveness study of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy; 2013, manuscript in preparation.

    Google Scholar 

  187. BigFoot DS, Schmidt SR. Honoring children, mending the circle: cultural adaptation of trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for American Indian and Alaska native children. J Clin Psychol. 2010;66(8):847–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. De Arellano MA, Waldrop AE, Deblinger E, Cohen JA, Danielson CK, Mannarino AR. Community outreach program for child victims of traumatic events: a community-based project for underserved populations. Behav Modif. 2005;29(1):130–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Scheeringa MS, Weems CF, Cohen JA, Amaya-Jackson L, Guthrie D. Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in three through six year-old children: a randomized clinical trial. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2011;52(8):853–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Foa EB, Rothbaum BO, Riggs DS, Murdock TB. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: a comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counseling. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1991;59(5):715–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Powers MB, Halpern JM, Ferenschak MP, Gillihan SJ, Foa EB. A meta-analytic review of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30(6):635–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Gilboa-Schechtman E, Foa EB, Shafran N, et al. Prolonged exposure versus dynamic therapy for adolescent PTSD: a pilot randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(10):1034–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Foa EB, Chrestman KR, Gilboa-Schechtman E. Prolonged exposure therapy for adolescents with PTSD: ­emotional processing of traumatic experiences, therapist guide. New York: Oxford University Press; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  194. Lieberman AF, Van Horn P. “Don’t hit my mommy!”: a manual for child–parent psychotherapy with young ­witnesses of family violence. Washington, DC: Zero to Three Press; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  195. Lieberman AF, Ippen CG, Van Horn P. Child–parent psychotherapy: 6-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;45(8):913–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Ghosh Ippen C, Harris WW, Van Horn P, Lieberman AF. Traumatic and stressful events in early childhood: can treatment help those at highest risk? Child Abuse Negl. 2011;35(7):504–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Toth S, Maughan A, Manly J, Spagnola M, Cicchetti D. The relative efficacy of two interventions in altering maltreated preschool children’s representational models: implications for attachment theory. Dev Psychopathol. 2002;14(04):877–908.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA, Toth S. Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions. Dev Psychopathol. 2006;18(03):623–49.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. March JS, Amaya-Jackson L, Murray MC, Schulte A. Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy for children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder after a single-incident stressor. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37(6):585–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Stein BD, Jaycox LH, Kataoka SH, et al. A mental health intervention for schoolchildren exposed to violence: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003;290(5):603–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Rolfsnes ES, Idsoe T. School-based intervention programs for PTSD symptoms: a review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Stress. 2011;24(2):155–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Jaycox LH, Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, et al. Children’s mental health care following Hurricane Katrina: a field trial of trauma-focused psychotherapies. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(2):223–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Ford JD, Russo E. Trauma-focused, present-centered, emotional self-regulation approach to integrated treatment for posttraumatic stress and addiction: trauma adaptive recovery group education and therapy (TARGET). Am J Psychother. 2006;60(4):335–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Frisman L, Ford J, Lin H-J, Mallon S, Chang R. Outcomes of trauma treatment using the TARGET model. J Groups Addict Recov. 2008;3(3–4):285–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  205. Berkowitz SJ, Stover CS, Marans SR. The child and family traumatic stress intervention: secondary prevention for youth at risk of developing PTSD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2011;52(6):676–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Evans GW. The environment of childhood poverty. Am Psychol. 2004;59(2):77–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. McKay MM, Bannon Jr WM. Engaging families in child mental health services. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2004;13(4):905–21 (Special Issue: Evidence-Based Practice, Part I: Research).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Meyer AS, McWey LM, McKendrick W, Henderson TL. Substance using parents, foster care, and termination of parental rights: the importance of risk factors for legal outcomes. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2010;32(5):639–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  209. Kemp SP, Marcenko MO, Hoagwood K, Vesneski W. Engaging parents in child welfare services: bridging family needs and child welfare mandates. Child Welf J. 2009;88(1):101–26.

    Google Scholar 

  210. Dare PS, Mallett CA, Welch C. Parental substance use disorders: disparate outcomes for adjudicated delinquent youths. Correct Compend. 2009;34(2):1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  211. Swenson CC, Schaeffer CM, Henggeler SW, Faldowski R, Mayhew AM. Multisystemic therapy for child abuse and neglect: a randomized effectiveness trial. J Fam Psychol. 2010;24(4):497–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Foa EB, Meadows EA. Psychosocial treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: a critical review. In: Spence J, Darley JM, Foss DJ, editors. Annual review of psychology. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  213. Jones HE, Wong CJ, Tuten M. Reinforcement-based therapy: 12-month evaluation of an outpatient drug-free treatment for heroin abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;79:119–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Swenson CC, Schaeffer CM, Tuerk EH, et al. Adapting multisystemic therapy for co-occurring child maltreatment and parental substance abuse: the building stronger families project. Emot Behav Disord Youth. 2009;9:3–8.

    Google Scholar 

  215. Hanson RF, Self-Brown S, Fricker-Elhai A, Kilpatrick DG, Saunders BE, Resnick H. Relations among parental substance use, violence exposure and mental health: the national survey of adolescents. Addict Behav. 2006;31(11):1988–2001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Zinzow HM, Ruggiero KJ, Hanson RF, Smith DW, Saunders BE, Kilpatrick DG. Witnessed community and parental violence in relation to substance use and delinquency in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of Trauma Stress. 2009;22(6):525–33 (Special Issue: Innovations in trauma research methods).

    Google Scholar 

  217. Green B, Rockhill A, Furrer C. Does substance abuse treatment make a difference for child welfare case outcomes? A statewide longitudinal analysis. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2007;29(4):460–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  218. Stover CS, Meadows AL, Kaufman J. Interventions for intimate partner violence: review and implications for evidence-based practice. Prof Psychol Res Pr. 2009;40(3):223–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  219. Graham-Bermann SA, Lynch S, Banyard VL, DeVoe ER, Halabu H. Community-based intervention for children exposed to intimate partner violence: an efficacy trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2007;75:199–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Grasso D, Webb C, Cohen A, Berman I. Building a Consumer Base for Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in a State System of Care. (2012). Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research; 39(2): 55-70.

    Google Scholar 

  221. Strawn JR, Keeshin B, DelBellow M, Geracioti TD, Putnam FW. Psychopharmacological treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: a review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(7):932–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Huemer J, Erhart F, Steiner H. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: a review of psychopharmacological treatment. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2010;41(6):624–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Robert R, Blakeney PE, Villarreal C, Rosenberg L, Meyer III WJ. Imipramine treatment in pediatric burn patients with symptoms of acute stress disorder: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38(7):873–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Perel JM, Staron V. A pilot randomized controlled trial of combined trauma-focused CBT and sertraline for childhood PTSD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(7):811–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Robb AS, Cueva JE, Sporn J, Yang R, Vanderburg DG. Sertraline treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2010;20(6):463–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Seedat S, Stein DJ, Ziervogel C, et al. Comparison of response to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in ­children, adolescents, and adults with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2002;12(1):37–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Seedat S, Lockhat R, Kaminer D, Zungu-Dirwayi N, Stein DJ. An open trial of citalopram in adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Int J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;16(1):21–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Horrigan JP, Barnhill L, Kohli R. Adderall, the atypicals, and weight gain. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(6):620.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Horrigan J. Guanfacine for posttraumatic stress disorder nightmares. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(8):975–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. Stathis S, Martin G, McKenna JG. A preliminary case series on the use of quetiapine for posttraumatic stress disorder in juveniles within a youth detention center. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005;25(6):539–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Meighen K, Hines L, Lagges A. Risperidone treatment of preschool children with thermal burns and acute stress disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2007;17(2):223–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Overall J, Gorham D. Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS): recent developments in ascertainment and scaling. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1988;24:97–9.

    Google Scholar 

  233. Steiner H, Saxena KS, Carrion V, Khanzode LA, Silverman M, Chang K. Divalproex sodium for the treatment of PTSD and conduct disordered youth: a pilot randomized controlled clinical trial. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2007;38(3):183–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Harmon RJ, Riggs P. Clonidine for posttraumatic stress disorder in preschool children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(9):1247–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Loof D, Grimley P, Kuller F. Carbamazepine found efficacious for some children, adolescents with PTSD. Special report: anxiety disorders. Psychiatr Times. 1995;12(2):23.

    Google Scholar 

  236. Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T. Propranolol treatment for childhood posttraumatic stress disorder, acute type. A pilot study. Am J Dis Child. 1988;142(11):1244–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. De Bellis MD, Van Dillen T. Childhood post-traumatic stress disorder: an overview. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2005;14(4):745–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Otto M, McHugh R, Kantak K. Combined pharmacotherapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders: medication effects, glucocorticoids, and attenuated treatment outcomes. Clin Psychol Sci Pract. 2010;17(2):91–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  239. Davis M, Ressler KJ, Rothbaum BO, Richardson R. Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction: translation from preclinical to clinical work. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;60:369–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Powers MB, Smits JA, Otto MW, Sanders C, Emmelkamp PM. Facilitation of fear extinction in phobic participants with a novel cognitive enhancer: a randomized placebo controlled trial of yohimbine augmentation. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23(3):350–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Norberg MM, Krystal JH, Tolin DF. A meta-analysis of D-cycloserine and the facilitation of fear extinction and exposure therapy. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(12):1118–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Guay S. Results from a six-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial assessing the efficacy of cognitive-behavior therapy combined with D-cycloserine for treating PTSD. Paper presented at: International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Montreal; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  243. Hetrick S, Purcell R, Garner B, Parslow R. Combined pharmacotherapy and psychological therapies for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(7):CD007316.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA

    Damion J. Grasso

  2. Yale University School of Medicine, 301 Cedar Street, 208098, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA

    Joan Kaufman

Authors
  1. Damion J. Grasso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joan Kaufman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joan Kaufman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Education and Training, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 3901 Greenspring Avenue, Baltimore, 21211, Maryland, USA

    Roma A. Vasa

  2. Fordham University, East Fordham Road 441, Bronx, 10458, New York, USA

    Amy Krain Roy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Grasso, D.J., Kaufman, J. (2013). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Children and Adolescents. In: Vasa, R., Roy, A. (eds) Pediatric Anxiety Disorders. Current Clinical Psychiatry. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_10

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-6598-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-6599-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation