Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Diabetic Somatic Neuropathy

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Diabetes

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((AEMB,volume 771))

Abstract

Diabetic neuropathy (DN) is the most common, most neglected and difficult to treat diabetic complication. It affects the whole body, and presents with diverse clinical pictures. The most important outcome of somatic and autonomic DN are the development of diabetic foot followed by diabetic ulceration and possible amputation. In this chapter the definition, epidemiology, pathophysiology and classification of somatic DN will be discussed. Attention will be given to various practical aspects of somatic DN of different types with their specific clinical presentation, diagnostic approaches and treatment options, including the usually rarely discussed gender differences. DN remains a problem in diabetology, compared to other micro- and macrovascular complications. The disease is rarely investigated, although simple testing devices for somatic nerve impairment exist, and remains difficult to treat because of the complex pathogenetic mechanisms. The main prevention/progression delaying measure for the progression of DN is the tight glycaemic control. Painful DN is common and need appropriate symptomatic relieving drugs. Future investigations must be targeted on new treatment options.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Vinik AI, Holland MT, Le Beau JM et al Diabetic neuropathies. Diabetes Care 1992; 15:1926–1975.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Young MJ, Boulton AJM, McLeod AF et al. A multicenlre study of the prevalence of diabetic peripheral neuropathy in the UK hospital clinic population. Diabetologia1993; 36:150–156.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Dyck PJ, Kratz KM, Karnes JL et al. The prevalence by staged severity of various types of diabetic neuropathy, retinopathy, and nephropathy in a population-based cohort: the Rochester Diabetic Neuropathy Study. Neurology 1993; 43:817–824.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Tesfaye S, Stevens LK, Stephenson JM et al. Prevalence of diabetic peripheral neuropathy and its relation to glycaemic control and potential risk factors: the EURODIABIDDM Complications Study. Diabetologia 1996; 39:1377–1384.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot. International Consensus on the Diabetic Foot(2007) www.idf.org/bookshop.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Apelqvist J, Bakker K, van Houtum WH et al. International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot (IWGDF) Editorial Board. Practical guidelines on the management and prevention of the diabetic foot: based upon the International Consensus on the Diabetic Foot (2007) Prepared by the International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot. Diabetes Metab Res Rev2008; 24Suppl 1:S181–S187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. American DiabetesAssociation, American Academy of Neurology: Report and recommendations of the San Antonio Conference on Diabetic Neuropathy (Consensus Statement). Diabetes Care 1988; 11:592–597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Boulton AJ, Malik RA, Arezzo JC et al. Diabetic somatic neuropathies. Diabetes Care 2004; 27(6): 1458–1486.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Boulton AJ, Vinik AI, Arezzo JC et al. American Diabetes Association. Diabetic neuropathies: a statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2005; 28(4):956–962

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Zochodne DW. Diabetic polyneuropathy: an update. Curr Opin Neurol 2008; 21(5):527–533.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Vinik AI, Park TS, Stansberry KB et al. Diabetic neuropathies. Diabetologia 2000; 43(8):957–973.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Herman WH, Kennedy L. Underdiagnosis of peripheral neuropathy in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005; 28:1480–1481.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Kumar S, Ashe HC, Partiell LN et al. The prevalence of foot ulceration and its correlates in type 2 diabetes: a population-based study. DiabetMed 1994; 11:480–484.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Kennedy WR, Navarro X. Sutherland DER: Neuropathy profile of diabetic patients in apancreas transplantation program. Neurology 1995; 45:773–780.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Kamenov Z, Parapunova R, Georgieva R. Earlier development of diabetic neuropathy in men than in women with type 2 diabetes. Gender Medicine 2010; 7(6):600–615.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Naka K, Sasaki H, Kishi Y et al. Effects of cilostazol on development ol’experimental diabetic neuropathy: functional and structural changes, and Na+—K+—ATPase acidity in peripheral nerve in rats with streptozotocin-induccd diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1995; 30:3,153–162.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Tomlinson DR, Dewhurst M, Stevens EJ et al. Reduced nerve blood flow in diabetic rats: relationship to nitric oxide production and inhibition of Aldose reductase. Diabet Med 1998; 15:579–585.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Ido Y, McHowat J, Chang K et al. Neural dysfunction and metabolic imbalances in diabetic rats. Prevention by acetyl-1-carnitine. Diabetes 1994; 43:l469–1477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Myoshi T, Goto I. Serial in vivo determinations of nerve conduction velocity in rat tails. Physiological and pathological changes. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1973; 35:125–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Ueno Y, Koike H, Annooh S et al. Effects of beraprostsodium, aprostacyclin analogue, on tail-llick response in two models of diabetic neuropathy in rats and its mechanism. Life Sci 1996; 59(9):PL105–PL110.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Kamenov Z, Higashino II, Todorova M et al. Physiological characteristics of diabetic neuropathy in sucrose-fed OtsukaLong-EvansTokushima fatty rats. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 2006; 28(1): 13–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Sima AAF, Sugimoto K. Experimental diabetic neuropathy: an update. Diabetologia 1999; 42(7):773–788.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Hotta N, Kakuta II, Fukasawa II et al. Effect of Niceritrol on Streptozotocin-induced diabetic neuropathy in rats. Diabetes 1992; 41:587–591.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Nakamura J. Koh N, Sakakibara F et al. Diabetic neuropathy in sucrose-fed Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rats: effect of an aldose reductase inhibitor, TAT. Life Sci 1997; 60:21,1847–1857.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Nakamura J, Hamada Y, Sakakibara F et al. Physiological and morphometric analyses of neuropathy in sucrose-fed OLETF rats. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2001; 51(l):9–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Obrosova I. Hyperglycemia-Initiated Mechanisms in Diabetic Neuropathy. In: Veves A, Malik R (eds.). Diabetic Neuropathy: Clinical Management, 2nd ed, Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press Inc 2007; 69–90.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  27. Demaine A, Yang B. Genomics of Diabetic Neuropathy. In: Veves A, Malik R (eds.). Diabetic Neuropathy: Clinical Management, 2nd edition, Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press Inc 2007; 31–50.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  28. Thomas PK: Classification of the diabetic neuropathies. In: Gries FA, Cameron NE, Low PA et al (eds.). Textbook of Diabetic Neuropathy. Stuttgart: Thieme 2003; 175–177.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Thomas PK: Classification, differential diagnosis, and staging of diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Diabetes 1997; 46(Suppl 2):S54–S57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Vinik A, Mehrabyan A. Diabetic neuropathies. Med Clin North Am 2004a; 88(4):947–999.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Vinik A, Mehrabyan A, Colen L et al. Focal entrapment neuropathies in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004b; 27(7):1783–1788.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Wilboum AJ. Diabetic entrapment and compression neuropathies. In: Dyck PJ, Thomas PK (eds.). Diabetic Neuropathy. Philadelphia: Saunders 1999; 481–508.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Perkins B, Olaleye D, Bril V. Carpal tunnel syndrome in patients with diabetic polyneuropathy. Diabetes Care 2002; 25:565–569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Vinik A. Diabetic Neuropathies: Evaluation, Management and Controversies in Treatment Options In: LeRoith D (ed.) Controversies in treating diabetes—Clinical and Research Aspects. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press Inc 2008; 108–134.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Schady W, Abuaisha B, Boulton AJM. Observations on severe ulnar neuropathy in diabetes. J Diabetes Compl 1998; 12:128–132.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Garland H, Moorehouse D. Compressive lesions of the external popliteal (common peroneal) nerve. BrMedJ 1952; 21:1373–1378.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Watanabe K, Hagura R, Akaniuna Y et al. Characteristics of cranial nerve palsies in diabetic patients. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1990; 10:19–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Goldstein JE, Cogan DG. Diabetic ophthalmoplegia with special reference to the pupil. Arch Ophthalmol 1960; 64:592–600.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Leslie RDG, Ellis C. Clinical course following diabetic ocular palsy. Postgrad Med J 1978; 54:791–792.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Dyck PJ. Detection, characterization, and staging of polyneuropathy: assessed in diabetics. Muscle Nerve 1988; 11:21–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Ellenberg M. Diabetic truncal rnononeuropathy—a new clincal syndrome. Diabetes Care 1978; 1:10–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Boulton AJM, Angus E, Ayyar DR et al. Diabetic thoracic polyradiculopathy presenting as abdominal swelling. BMJ 1984; 289:798–799.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Tesfaye S. Clinical Features of Diabetic Polyneuropathy. In: Veves A, Malik R (eds.). Diabetic Neuropathy: Clinical Management. 2nd edition. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press Inc. 2007; 243–258.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  44. Vinik AI, Strotmeyer ES, Nakave AA et al. Diabetic neuropathy in older adults. Clin Geriatr Med 2008; 24(3):407–435.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. James P, Dyck B, Windenbank A. Diabetic and nondiabetic lumbosacral radiculoplexus neuropathy: new insights into pathophysiology. Muscle Nerve 2002; 25:477–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Sharma K, Cross J, Farronay O et al. Demyclinating neuropathy in diabetes mellitus. Arch Neurol 2002; 59:758–765.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Krendel DA, Zacharias A, Younger DS. Autoimmune diabetic neuropathy. Neurol Clin 1997; 15:959–971.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Haq RU, Pendlebury WW, Fries TJ et al. Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy in diabetic patients. Muscle Nerve 2003; 27:465–470.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Koller H, Kieseier BC, Jander S et al. Chrome Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy. NEJM 2005; 352:1343–1356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Research criteria for diagnosis of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP): report from an ad hoc sub-committee of the America Academy of Neurology AIDS Task Force. Neurology 1991; 41:617–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Wilson JR, Park Y, Fisher MA. Electrodiagnostic criteria in CIDP: comparison with diabetic neuropathy. Electromyogr Clin Neurophsiol 2000; 40:181–185

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Gabriel CM, Howard R, Kinsella N et al. Prospective study of the usefulness of sural nerve biopsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000; 69:442–446.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Molenaar DS, Vermeulen M, de Haan R. Diagnostic value of sural nerve biopsy in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64:84–89.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Vital C, Vital A, Lagueny A et al. Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy; immunopathological and ultrastructural study of peripheral nerve biopsy in 42 cases. Ultrastruct Pathol 2000; 24:363–369.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ayyar DR, Sharma KR. Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy in diabetes mellitus. Curr Diab Rep 2004; 4:409–412.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Cocito D, Ciaramitaro P, Isoardo G et al. Intravenous immuuoglobuliu as first treatment in diabetics with concomitant distal symmetric axonal polyneuropathy and CIDP. J Neurol 2002; 249:719–722.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Sharma KR, Cross J, Ayyar DR et al. Diabetic demyelinating polyneuropathy responsive to intravenous immunoglobulin therapy. Arch Neurol 2002; 59:751–757.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Tesfaye S, Kempler P. Painful diabetic neuropathy. Diabetologia 2005; 48:805–807.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Guy RJC, Clark CA, Malcolm PN et al. Evaluation of thermal and vibration sensation in diabetic neuropathy. Diabetologia 1985; 28:131.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Tesfaye S, Malik R, Hams N et al. Arteriovenous shunting and proliferating new vessels in acute painful neuropathy of rapid glycaemic control (insulin neuritis). Diabetologia 1996; 39:329–335.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Tesfaye S, Watt J, Benbow SJ ct al. Electrical spinal-cord stimulation for painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Lancet 1996; 348:1698–1701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Tesfaye S, Boulton AJ, Dyck PJ et al. Toronto Diabetic Neuropathy Expert Group. Diabetic neuropathies: update on definitions, diagnostic criteria, estimation of severity, and treatments. Diabetes Care 2010; 33(10):2285–2293.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Boulton AJM, Mes FA, Jervell JA. Guidelines for the diagnosis and outpatient management of diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Diabet Med 1998; 15:508–514.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Mayfield JA, Reiber GE, Sanders LJ et al. Preventive foot care in people with diabetes. Diabetes Care 1998; 21:2161–2177.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Jude EB, Boulton AJM. End-stage complications of diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Rev 1999; 7:395–410.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Tavee J, Zhou L. Small fiber neuropathy: A burning problem. Cleve Clin J Med 2009; 76(5):297–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Devigili G, Tugnoli V, Penza P et al. The diagnostic criteria for small fibre neuropathy: from symptoms to neuropathology. Brain 2008; 131(Pt 7):1912–1925.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Grant CM, Quinn KA, Dawes W. Differential protein S-thiolation of glyccraldehydc-3-phosphatc dehydrogenase isoenzymes influences sensitivity to oxidative stress. Mol Cell Biol 1999; 19(4):2650–2656.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Vinik AI, Bril V, Litchy WJ et al. MBBQ Study Group. Sural sensory action potential identifies diabetic peripheral neuropathy responders to therapy. Muscle Nerve 2005; 32(5):619–625.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Wilkinson KD, Lee KM, Deshpande S et al. The neuron-specific protein PGP 9.5 is aubiquitiu carboxylterminal hydrolase. Science 1989; 246:670–673.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Gibbons CH, Griffin JW, Polydefkis M et al. The utility of skin biopsy for prediction of progression in suspected small fiber neuropathy. Neurology 2006; 66:256–258.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Lauria G, Cornblath DR, Johansson O et al. EFNS guidelines on the use of skin biopsy in the diagnosis of peripheral neuropathy. Eur J Neurol 2005; 12:747–758.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Hossain P, Sachdev A, Malik RA. Early detection of diabetic peripheral neuropathy with corneal confocal microscopy. Lancet 2005; 366:1340–1343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Mehra S, Tavakoli M, Kallinikos PA et al. Corneal confocal microscopy detects early nerve regeneration after pancreas transplantation in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007; 30:2608–2612.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Caselli A, Rich J, Hanane T et al. Role of C-nociceptive fibers in the nerve axon reflex-related vasodiiation in diabetes. Neurology 2003; 60:297–300.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Apfel SC, Asbury AK, Bril V et al. Ad Hoc Panel on Endpoints for Diabetic Neuropathy Trials. Positive neuropathic sensory symptoms as endpoints in diabetic neuropathy trials. J Neurol Sci 2001; 189:3–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329(14):977–986.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Franklin GM, Kahn LB, Baxter J et al. Sensory neuropathy in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 131(4):633–643.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Pittenger G, Pharson H, Ullal J et al. Other Therapeutic Agents for the Treatment of Diabetic Neuropathy. In: Veves A, Malik R (eds.). Diabetic Neuropathy: Clinical Management, Second Edition, Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press Inc 2007; 389–412.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Ismail-Beigi F, Craven T, Banerji MA et al. ACCORD trial group. Effect of intensive treatment of hyperglycaemia on microvascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: an analysis of the ACCORD randomised trial. Lancet 2010; 376:419–430.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Ziegler D, Nowak H, Kernpier P et al. Treatment of symptomatic diabetic polyneuropathy with the antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid: a meta-analysis. Diabet Med 2004; 21:114–121.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Ziegler D, Ametov A, Barinov A et al. Oral treatment with alpha-lipoic acid improves symptomatic diabetic polyneuropathy: the SYDNEY 2 trial. Diabetes Care 2006; 29:2365–2370.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Brussee V, Cunningham FA. Zochodne DW. Direct insulin signaling of neurons reverses diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 2004; 53:1824–1830.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Toth C, Brussee V, Zochodne DW. Remote neurotrophic support of epidermal nerve fibres in experimental diabetes. Diabetologia 2006; 49:1081–1088.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Ekberg K, Brismar T, Johansson BL et al. C-Peptide replacement therapy and sensory nerve function in type 1 diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Care 2007; 30:71–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Toth C, RongLL, Yang C et al. RAGE and experimental diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 2008; 57:1002–1017.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Cheng C, Zochodne DW. Sensory neurons with activated caspase-3 survive long-term experimental diabetes. Diabetes 2003; 52:2363–2371.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Treede RD, Jensen TS, Campbell JN et al. Neuropathic pain: redefinition and a grading system for clinical and research purposes. Neurology 2008; 70:1630–1635.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Cruccu G, Anand P, Attal N et al. EFNS guidelines on neuropathic pain assessment. Eur J Neurol 2004; 11:153–162.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Daousi C, Nurmikko T. Painful diabetic neuropathy. In: Catherine S, Kalso E, Ballantyne J (eds.). Evidence-Based Chronic Pain Management. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, 2010; 204–221.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  91. Tesfaye S. Advances in the management of diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Curr Opin Support Palliat Care 2009; 3:136–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Jensen TS, Backonja MM, Hernández Jiménez S et al. New perspectives on the management of diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2006; 3:108–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Baron R, Mayoral V, Leijon G et al. 5% lidocaine medicated plaster versus pregabalin in postherpetic neuralgia and diabetic polyneuropathy: an open-label, non-inferiority two-stage RCT study. Curr Med Res Opin 2009; 25:1663–1676.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Boulton A. Treatment of Painful Diabetic Neuropathy. In: Veves A, Malik R (eds.). Diabetic Neuropathy: Clinical Management, Second Edition, Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press Inc 2007; 351–366.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  95. Snutch TP. Targeting chronic and neuropathic pain: the N-type calcium channel comes of age. NeuroRx2005; 2:662–670.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Craner MJ, Klein JP, Renganathan M et al. Changes of sodium channel expression in experimental painful diabetic neuropathy. Ann Neurol 2002; 52:786–792.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Shah BS, Gonzalez MI, Bramwell S et al. Beta3, a novel auxiliary subunit for the voltage gated sodium channel is upregulatcd in sensory neurones following streptozocin induced diabetic neuropathy in rat. Neurosci Lett 2001; 309:1–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Cummins TR, Sheets PL, Waxman SG. The roles of sodium channels in nociception: implications for mechanisms of pain. Pain 2007; 131:243–257.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  99. Luo ZD, Chaplan SR, Higuera ES et al. Upregulation of dorsal root ganglion (alpha)2(delta) calcium channel subunit and its correlation with allodynia in spinal nerve-injured rats..J Neurosci 2001; 21:1868–1875.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  100. Newton RA, Bingham S, Case PC et al. Dorsal root ganglion neurons show increased expression of the calcium channel alpha2delta-l subunit following partial sciatic nerve injury7. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 2001; 95:1–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Sills GJ. The mechanisms of action of gabapentin and pregabalin. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2006; 6:108–113.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. American Diabetes Association. Clinical practice recommendations 2011. Diabetes Care 2011; 34Suppl 1:S1–S98.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Härtel U. Gender issues in the epidemiology of cardiovascular diseases. Ther Umsch 2007; 64:297–304.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Gu K, Cowie CC, Harris MI. Diabetes and decline in heart disease mortality in US adults. JAMA 1999; 281:1291–1297.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Juutilainen A, Kortelainen S, Lehto S et al. Gender difference in the impact of type 2 diabetes on coronary heart disease risk. Diabetes Care 2004; 27:2898–2904.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Pradhan AD, Skerrett PJ, Manson JE. Obesity, diabetes, and coronary risk in women. J Cardiovasc Risk 2002; 9:323–330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Lee WL, Cheung AM, Cape D et al. Impact of diabetes on coronary artery disease in women and men: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Diabetes Care 2000; 23:962–968.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Ferrara A, Williamson DF, Karter AJ et al; for the Diabetes (TRIAD) Study Group. Sex differences in quality of health care related to ischemie heart disease prevention in patients with diabetes: The Translating Research Into Action for Diabetes (TRIAD) study, 2000–2001. Diabetes Care 2004; 27:2974–2976.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Wexler DJ, Grant RW, Meigs JB et al. Sex disparities in treatment of cardiac risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005; 28:514–520.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Huxley R, Barzi F, Woodward M. Excess risk of fatal coronary heart disease associated with diabetes in men and women: Meta-analysis of 37 prospective cohort studies. BMJ 2006; 332:73–78.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  111. Ferrara A, Mangione CM, Kim C et al; for the Translating Research Into Action for Diabetes Study Group. Sexdisparities in control and treatment of modifiable cardiovascular disease riskfactors amongpaticnts with diabetes: Translating Research Into Action for Diabetes (TRIAD) Study. Diabetes Care. 2008; 31:69–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Pop-Busui R, Lu J, Lopes N et al; for the BARI 2D Investigators. Prevalence of diabetic peripheral neuropathy and relation to glycemic control therapies at baseline in the BARI 2D cohort. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2009; 14:1–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  113. Liu Z, Fu C, Wang W et al. Prevalence of chronic complications oftype 2 diabetes mellitus in outpatients—a cross-sectional hospital based survey in urban China. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2010; 8:62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Prompers L, Schaper N, Apelqvist J et al. Prediction of outcome in individuals with diabetic foot ulcers: Focus on the differences between individuals with and without peripheral arterial disease. The EURODIALE Study. Diabetologia 2008; 51: 747–755.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  115. Karnenov Z, Christov V, Yankova T. Erectile dysfunction in diabetic men—linked more to microangiopathic complications and neuropathy than to maeroangiopathic disturbances. Journal of Men’s Health and Gender 2007; 4(l):64–73.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University Hospital Alexandrovska, Medical University - Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria

    Zdravko A. Kamenov & Latchezar D. Traykov

Authors
  1. Zdravko A. Kamenov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Latchezar D. Traykov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zdravko A. Kamenov .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK

    Shamim I. Ahmad BSc, MSc, PhD

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Landes Bioscience and Springer Science+Business Media

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kamenov, Z.A., Traykov, L.D. (2013). Diabetic Somatic Neuropathy. In: Ahmad, S.I. (eds) Diabetes. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 771. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5441-0_14

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation