Skip to main content

Christian Perspectives on Faith at Work: An Empirical Exploration of Faith and Work Associations Across Christian Religious Traditions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Faith and Spirituality in the Workplace

Abstract

While personal experiences and family socialization are likely to influence beliefs and behaviors linking faith to work, religious congregations also are likely to play a prominent role in shaping faith-work connections. Our purpose in this chapter is to draw upon a nationally representative sample of over a thousand working adults to describe the role of Christian congregations in making faith relevant to the workplace. Two variables that have particular relevance to the association of faith and work are the Congregational Entrepreneurial Orientation Scale (CEOS) and the Congregational Faith at Work Scale (CFWS). The CEOS variable assesses the behavior of congregational leaders related to being innovative and demonstrating a willingness to take risks, whereas the CFWS variable assesses the extent to which specific beliefs about faith and work integration are emphasized within a congregation. This chapter reports on the association of these congregational variables, across religious traditions, with work attitudes and behaviors and offers recommendations for future research.

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0925907. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Allen, N.J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barney, J.B., Busenitz, L.W., Fiet, J.O., & Moesel, D.D. (1996). New venture teams’ assessment of learning assistance from venture capital firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 11(4), 257–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, P. E. & P. H. Dhingra. (2001). Religious involvement and volunteering: Implications for civil society. Sociology of Religion, 62, 315–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellu, R. & Fiume, P. (2004). Religiosity and entrepreneurial behaviour: An explanatory study. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 5(3), 191–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, P.L., Dehority, J., Garman, L., Hanson, E., Hochschwender, M., Lebold, C., Rohr, R., & Sullivan, J. (1980). Intrapersonal correlates of nonspontaneous helping behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 110(1), 87–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, P. (1967). The Sacred canopy: Elements of a sociological theory of religion. New York: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beyerlein, K. & J. R. Hipp. (2006). From pews to participation: The effect of congregation activity and context on bridging civic engagement. Social Problems, 53, 97–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowling, N. A., Eschleman, K. J., & Wang, Q. (2010). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 915–934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camman, C., Fichman, M., Jenkins, D., & Klesh, J.: 1979, The Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan).

    Google Scholar 

  • Caputo, R. K. (2004). Parent religiosity, family processes, and adolescent outcomes. Families in Society, 85, 495–505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaves, M. (2004). Congregations in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaves, M., Konieczny, M. E., Beyerlein, K., & Barman, E. (1999). The national congregations study: Background, methods, and selected results. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 38, 458–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A. (2003). Multiple commitments in the workplace: An integrative approach. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper-Hakim, A., & Viswesvaran, C. (2005). The Construct of Work Commitment: Testing an Integrative Framework. Psychological Bulletin, 131(2), 241–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Covin, J. & Slevin, D. (1989). Strategic management of small firms in hostile and benign environments. Strategic Management Journal, 10(1), 75–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Covin, J.G., Green, K.M., & Slevin, D.P. (2006). Strategic process effects on the entrepreneurial orientation sales growth rate relationship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(1), 57–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crede, M., Chernyshenko, O. S., Stark, S., Dalal, R. S., & Bashshur, M. (2007). Job satisfaction as mediator: An assessment of job satisfaction’s position within the nomological network. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80(3), 515–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dierdorff, E. C. & Morgenson, F. P. (2007). Consensus in work role requirements: The influence of discrete occupational context on role expectations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1228–1241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodd, S. D. & Seaman, P. T. (1998). Religion and enterprise: An introductory exploration. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 23(1), 71–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd, S. D. & Gotsis, G. (2007). An examination of the inter-relationships between entrepreneurship and religion. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 8(2), 93–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dougherty, K. D., Johnson, B. J., & Polson, E. C. (2007). Recovering the lost: Remeasuring U.S. religious affiliation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46, 483–499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edgell, P. (2005). Religion and family in a changing society. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, M. O. & Smith, C. (2000). Divided by faith: Evangelical religion and the problem of race in America. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Froese, P. & Bader, C. (2010). America’s four gods: What we say about God--& what that says about us. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heslin, P.A., Vandewalle, D., & Latham, G. P. (2006). Keen to help? Managers’ implicit person theories and their subsequent employee coaching. Personnel Psychology, 59(4), 871–902.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jogaratnam, G. & Ching-Yick Tse, E. (2006). Entrepreneurial orientation and the structuring of organizations. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(6), 454–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R.E., Chang, C., & Yang, L. (2010). Commitment and motivation at work: The relevance of employee identity and regulatory focus. Academy of Management Review, 35(2), 226–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, H. r., Furnham, A., & Deile, A. J. (2010). Religious orientation and the Protestant Work Ethic. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 13(7-8), 697–706.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C. J., Bono, J. E., & Patton, G. K. (2001). The job satisfaction – job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 376–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, D. (1964). The motivational basis of organizational behavior. Behavioral Science, 9, 131–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kellstedt, L. A. & Green, J. C. (1993). Knowing God’s many people: Denominational preference and political behavior. In D. C. Leege & L. A. Kellstedt (Eds), Rediscovering the religious factor in American politics, pp. 53–69. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellstedt, L. A., Green, J. C., Guth, J. L., & Smith, C. E. (1996). Grasping the essentials: The social embodiment of religion and political behavior. In J. C. Green, J. L. Guth, C. E. Smidt, & L. A. Kellstedt (Eds), Religion and the culture wars: Dispatches from the front, pp. 174–192. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, J. E., Jr. (2008). Dismissing the obvious: Will mainstream management research ever take religion seriously? Journal of Management Inquiry, 17(3), 214–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, H. J., Molloy, J. C., & Cooper, J. T. (2009). Conceptual foundations: Construct definitions and theoretical representations of workplace commitments. In H. J. Klein, T. E. Becker, & J. P. Meyer (Eds.), Commitment in Organizations: Accumulated Wisdom and New Directions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence-Erlbaum Associated.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohut, A., Green, J. C., Keeter, S., & Toth, R. C. (2000). The diminishing divide: Religion’s changing role in American politics. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C., Lee, K., & Pennings, J.M. (2001). Internal capabilities, external networks, and performance: A study on technology-based ventures. Strategic Management Journal, 22, 615–640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, C. E. & Mamiya, L. H. (1990). The black church in the African American experience. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumpkin, G.T., Dess, G.G. (1996). Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it to performance. Academy of Management Review, 21(1), 135–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumpkin, G.T. & Dess, G.G. (2001). Linking two dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation to firm performance: The moderating role of environment and industry life cycle. Journal of Business Venturing, 16, 429–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M. L., Naughton, M. J., & VanderVeen, S. (2009). Faith at Work Scale (FWS): Justification, Development, and Validation of a Measure of Judaeo-Christian Religion in the Workplace. Journal of Business Ethics, 85(2), 227–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M. L., Naughton, M. J., & VanderVeen, S. (2011). Connecting religion and work: Patterns and influences of work-faith integration. Human Relations, 64(5), 675–701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C. (1961). The achieving society. Oxford England: Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCline, R. L., Bhat, S. & Baj, P. (2000). Opportunity recognition: An exploratory investigation of a component of the entrepreneurial process in the context of the health care industry. Entrepreneurship, Theory, and Practice, Winter, 81–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGregor, D. (1960) The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMullen, J.S., Shepherd, D.A. (2006). Entrepreneurial action and the role of uncertainty in the theory of the entrepreneur. Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 132–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1, 61–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research, and application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. (1983). The correlates of entrepreneurship in three types of firms. Management Science, 29(7), 770–791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. (2011). Miller (1983) revisited: A reflection on EO research and some suggestions for the future. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(5), 699–716.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M. J., Woehr, D. J., & Hudspeth, N. (2002). The meaning and measurement of work ethic: Construction and initial validation of a multidimensional inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(3), 451–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mirels, H. L. & Garret, J. B. (1971). The protestant ethic as a personality variable. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 36(1), 40–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monsen, E. & Boss R. W. (2009). The Impact of Strategic Entrepreneurship Inside the Organization: Examining Job Stress and Employee Retention. Journal of Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33, 71–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neal, A., Yeo, G., Koy, A., & Xiao, T. (2012). Predicting the form and direction of work role performance from the big 5 model of personality traits. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(2), 175–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, J. Z., & Baker, J. (2007). What would Jesus buy: American consumption of religious and spiritual material goods. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46, 501–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, J. Z. & Smith, C. (2000). ‘To whom much has been given…’: Religious capital and community voluntarism among churchgoing Protestants. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 39, 272–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patzelt, H., & Shepherd, D. A. (2011). Recognizing Opportunities for Sustainable Development. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 35(4), 631–652.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearce, J. A., II, Fritz, D. A., & Davis, P. S. (2010). Entrepreneurial Orientation and the Performance of Religious Congregations as Predicted by Rational Choice Theory. Journal of Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 34, 219–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Lee, Y, & Podsakoff, N.P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regnerus, M. D. (2003). Religion and positive adolescent outcomes: A review of research and theory. Review of Religious Research, 44, 394–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, P. B., Stimpson, D.V., Huefner, J. C., & Hunt, H. K. (1991). An attitude approach to the prediction of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship, Theory, and Practice, Summer, 13–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roof, W. C. & McKinney, W. (1987). American mainline religion: Its changing shape and future. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shook, J. R. (2003). Entrepreneurship and values in a democratic and pragmatic economics: commentary on ‘A transactional view of entrepreneurship’. Journal of Economic Methodology, 10(2), 181–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Short, J. C., Ketchen, J. J., Shook, C. L., & Ireland, R. (2010). The Concept of “Opportunity” in Entrepreneurship Research: Past Accomplishments and Future Challenges. Journal of Management, 36(1), 40–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, E., & Carter, S. (2007). Social entrepreneurship: Theoretical antecedents and empirical analysis of entrepreneurial processes and outcomes. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 14(3), 418–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C., with M. L. Denton. (2005). Soul searching: The religious and spiritual lives of American teenagers. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sosik, J. J., Juzbasich, J., & Chun, J. (2011). Effects of moral reasoning and management level on ratings of charismatic leadership, in-role and extra-role performance of managers: A multi-source examination. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(2), 434–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steensland, B., Park, J. Z., Regnerus, M. D., Robinson, L. D., Wilcox, W. B., & Woodberry R. D. (2000). The measure of American religion: Toward improving the state of the art. Social Forces, 79(1), 291–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, J., Kacmar, K., & Busenitz, L. (2012). Entrepreneurial alertness in the pursuit of new opportunities. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(1), 77–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tocqueville, A. [1835/1840] (1969). Democracy in America. Anchor Books, Garden City, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tracey, P. (2012). Religion and Organization: A Critical Review of Current Trends and Future Directions, The Academy of Management Annals, 6, TBD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, M., Cloutier, J., Simard, G., Chênevert, D., & Vandenberghe, C. (2010). The role of HRM practices, procedural justice, organizational support and trust in organizational commitment and in-role and extra-role performance. The International Journal Of Human Resource Management, 21(3), 405–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Ven, A. H., Sapienza, H. J., & Villanueva, J. (2007). Entrepreneurial pursuits of self-and collective interests. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 1, 353–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dyne, L. & LePine, J. A. (1998). Helping and voice extra-role behaviors: Evidence of construct and predictive validity. Academy of Management Journal, 41(1), 108–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, M. [1904–1905] (1992). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, translated by T. Parsons. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiklund, J. (1999). The sustainability of the entrepreneurial orientation-performance relationship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 24, 37–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilcox, W. B. (2004). Soft patriarchs, new men: How Christianity shapes fathers and husbands. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, L. J. & Anderson, S. E. (1991). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management, 17, 601–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J. & Janoski, T. (1995). The contribution of religion to volunteer work. Sociology of Religion, 56, 137–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, careers, and callings: People’s relations to their work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 21–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wuthnow, R. (1987). Meaning and moral order: Explorations in cultural analysis. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mitchell J. Neubert .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Neubert, M.J., Dougherty, K.D. (2013). Christian Perspectives on Faith at Work: An Empirical Exploration of Faith and Work Associations Across Christian Religious Traditions. In: Neal, J. (eds) Handbook of Faith and Spirituality in the Workplace. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5233-1_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics