Abstract
This chapter discusses the linkage between international trade and human security in Asian bilateral free trade agreements (FTAs). It begins with an overview of human security issues in intra-Asian FTAs and shows that no substantial provisions on environmental protection and labor standards can be found in them. But one issue area stands out: the mobility of persons, a controversial agenda to give people greater opportunities to work abroad while protecting their workers’ rights. The issue has been debated under the World Trade Organization (WTO) as a part of the liberalization of trade in services, but has deadlocked because it touches on the controversy surrounding immigration. The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) has failed to enact any provisions that satisfy both the receiving and sending nations. Interestingly, though, Japan—a nation with an unusually small immigrant population—became the first country to conclude bilateral FTAs that could encourage freer transnational movement of workers, going beyond GATS.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Author’s evaluation, based on data from the Asia Regional Integration Center (ARIC) Free Trade Agreement Database for Asia (available online at http://www.aric.adb.org/). Accessed 7 March 2012.
- 3.
- 4.
Commission on Human Security 2003, 78–79.
- 5.
- 6.
For more information on the GATS, see World Trade Organization (2005).
- 7.
See Paragraph 2 in Annex on movement of natural persons supplying services under the Agreement. Available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/8-anmvnt_e.htm. Accessed 7 March 2012.
- 8.
See Paragraph 4, ibid.
- 9.
Ibid.
- 10.
Ibid.
- 11.
On the mobility of highly-skilled workers, see for example Cornelius et al. (2001).
- 12.
- 13.
Keidanren’s policy proposals in English are available at http://www.keidanren.or.jp/english/policy/index.html. Accessed 1 March 2012.
- 14.
Author’s interview in Tokyo, November 15, 2011.
- 15.
Philippine Daily Inquirer, various articles, available online at http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/ (accessed December 1, 2011).
- 16.
In JIEPA Japan agreed to launch the JPEPA-type program (up to 1,000 nurses and caregivers in 2 years) in exchange for the long-term supply of liquefied natural gas from Indonesia, which was vital for Japan’s energy security. Apparently its ratification in Indonesia was less troubled because: domestic debate over trade was not ripe yet as it was Indonesia’s very first FTA; Indonesians knew their gains were not smaller than their precedence, JPEPA, and; their terms were slightly better (Philippine nurse candidates were required to have three year work experience, while Indonesian candidates needed two).
- 17.
Philippine Daily Inquirer, various articles.
- 18.
Mainich Shimbun, July 8, 2010, 1.
- 19.
Nihon Keizai Shimbun (online), March 25 and 26, 2011.
- 20.
Asahi Shimbun (Online), June 14, 2011.
- 21.
To a questionnaire sent to major Japanese hospitals in early 2008, while nearly half (46 %) responded that they were willing to hire the nurses if they had already passed the exam, 62 % answered that they were hesitant to accept the EPA “candidates.” Kawaguchi et al. (2009).
- 22.
- 23.
The author thanks Lonny Carlile for his comment on this point.
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Yamada, A. (2013). Bilateral Trade Agreements and Human Security in Asia. In: Aggarwal, V., Govella, K. (eds) Linking Trade and Security. The Political Economy of the Asia Pacific, vol 1. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4765-8_8
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