Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Leishmaniasis: Challenges in the Control and Eradication

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Challenges in Infectious Diseases

Part of the book series: Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century ((EIDC))

Abstract

Leishmaniasis is one of the world’s most neglected diseases, affecting largely the poorest of the poor, mainly in developing countries. It is a vector-borne disease caused by obligate intracellular protozoa of the genus Leishmania. It is endemic in large areas of the tropics, subtropics and the Mediterranean basin. Infection in humans is caused by more than 20 Leishmania species and is transmitted by ∼30 different species of phlebotomine sandflies [1]. It broadly manifests as visceral leishmaniasis (VL, also known as kala-azar), cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) and muco-cutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Pearson RD, Sousa AQ (1996) Clinical spectrum of leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis 22:1–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Sundar S (2012) Leishmaniases. In: Longo DL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Jameson JL, Loscalzo J (eds) Harrisons’s Priniciples of Internal Medicine, 18th edn. McGraw Hill, New York, pp 1709–1716

    Google Scholar 

  3. Control of the Leishmaniasis. Report of a meeting of the WHO Expert Committee on the Control of Leishmaniases, Geneva, 22–26 Mar 2010. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_949_eng.pdf. Accessed on 29 May 2011

  4. Chappuis F, Sundar S, Hailu A, Ghalib H, Rijal S, Peeling RW, Alvar J, Boelaert M (2007) Visceral leishmaniasis: what are the needs for diagnosis, treatment and control? Nat Rev Microbiol 5:873–882

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Pearson RD, Jeronimo SMB, de Queiroz Sousa A (1999) Leishmaniasis. In: Guerrant RL, Walker DH, Weller PF (eds) Tropical infectious diseases: principles, pathogens and practice. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, pp 797–813

    Google Scholar 

  6. Zijlstra EE, Musa AM, Khalil EA, el-Hassan IM, el-Hassan AM (2003) Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Lancet Infect Dis 3:87–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Thakur CP, Kumar K (1992) Post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis: a neglected aspect of kala-azar control programmes. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 86:355–359

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Seaman J, Mercer AJ, Sondorp E (1996) The epidemic of visceral leishmaniasis in western Upper Nile, southern Sudan: course and impact from 1984 to 1994. Int J Epidemiol 25:862–871

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Alvar J, Canavate C, Gutierrez-Solar B, Jimenez M, Laguna F, Lopez-Velez R, Molina R, Moreno J (1997) Leishmania and human immunodeficiency virus coinfection: the first 10 years. Clin Microbiol Rev 10:298–319

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Olivier M, Badaro R, Medrano FJ, Moreno J (2003) The pathogenesis of Leishmania/HIV co-infection: cellular and immunological mechanisms. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 97:79–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Tremblay M, Olivier M, Bernier R (1996) Leishmania and the pathogenesis of HIV infection. Parasitol Today 12:257–261

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Gradoni L, Scalone A, Gramiccia M, Troiani M (1996) Epidemiological surveillance of leishmaniasis in HIV-1-infected individuals in Italy. AIDS 10:785–791

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Lopez-Velez R, Perez-Molina JA, Guerrero A, Baquero F, Villarrubia J, Escribano L, Bellas C, Perez-Corral F, Alvar J (1998) Clinicoepidemiologic characteristics, prognostic factors, and survival analysis of patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus and Leishmania in an area of Madrid, Spain. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58:436–443

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Pintado V, Martin-Rabadan P, Rivera ML, Moreno S, Bouza E (2001) Visceral leishmaniasis in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected and non-HIV-infected patients. A comparative study. Medicine (Baltimore) 80:54–73

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Rosenthal E, Marty P, Poizot-Martin I, Reynes J, Pratlong F, Lafeuillade A, Jaubert D, Boulat O, Dereure J, Gambarelli F, Gastaut JA, Dujardin P, Dellamonica P, Cassuto JP (1995) Visceral leishmaniasis and HIV-1 co-infection in southern France. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 89:159–162

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Laguna F, Videla S, Jiménez-Mejías ME, Sirera G, Torre-Cisneros J, Ribera E, Prados D, Clotet B, Sust M, López-Vélez R, Alvar J, Spanish HIV-Leishmania Study Group (2003) Amphotericin B lipid complex versus meglumine antimoniate in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in patients infected with HIV: a randomized pilot study. J Antimicrob Chemother 52:464–468

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Alvar J, Gutiérrez-Solar B, Pachón I, Calbacho E, Ramírez M, Vallés R et al (1996) AIDS and Leishmania infantum. New approaches for a new epidemiological problem. Clin Dermatol 14:541–546

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Molina R, Gradoni L, Alvar J (2003) HIV and the transmission of Leishmania. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 97:29–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Desjeux P, Alvar J (2003) LeishmaniaIHIV co-infections: epidemiology in Europe. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 97:3–15

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Alvar J, Aparicio P, Aseffa A, Den Boer M, Cañavate C, Dedet JP, Gradoni L, Ter Horst R, López-Vélez R, Moreno J (2008) The relationship between leishmaniasis and AIDS: the second 10 years. Clin Microbiol Rev 21:334–359

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Rijal S, Boelaert M, Regmi S, Karki BM, Jacquet D, Singh R, Chance ML, Chappuis F, Hommel M, Desjeux P, Van der Stuyft P, Le Ray D, Koirala S (2004) Evaluation of a urinary antigen-based latex agglutination test in the diagnosis of kala-azar in eastern Nepal. Trop Med Int Health 9:724–729

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Sundar S, Singh RK, Bimal SK, Gidwani K, Mishra A, Maurya R, Singh SK, Manandhar KD, Boelaert M, Rai M (2007) Comparative evaluation of parasitology and serological tests in the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in India: a phase III diagnostic accuracy study. Trop Med Int Health 12:284–289

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Sundar S, Agrawal S, Pai K, Chance M, Hommel M (2005) Detection of leishmanial antigen in the urine of patients with visceral leishmaniasis by a latex agglutination test. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73:269–271

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Chappuis F, Rijal S, Soto A, Menten J, Boelaert M (2006) A meta-analysis of the diagnostic performance of the direct agglutination test and rK39 dipstick for visceral leishmaniasis. BMJ 333:723

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. De Almeida SL, Romero HD, Prata A, Costa RT, Nascimento E, Carvalho SF, Rodrigues V (2006) Immunologic tests in patients after clinical cure of visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75:739–743

    Google Scholar 

  26. Hailu A (1990) Pre- and post-treatment antibody levels in visceral leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84:673–675

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Koirala S, Karki P, Das ML, Parija SC, Karki BM (2004) Epidemiological study of kala-azar by direct agglutination test in two rural communities of eastern Nepal. Trop Med Int Health 9:533–537

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Schenkel K, Rijal S, Koirala S, Koirala S, Vanlerberghe V, Van der Stuyft P, Gramiccia M, Boelaert M (2006) Visceral leishmaniasis in southeastern Nepal: a cross-sectional survey on Leishmania donovani infection and its risk factors. Trop Med Int Health 11:1792–1799

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Schaefer KU, Kurtzhals JA, Gachihi GS, Muller AS, Kager PA (1995) A prospective seroepidemiological study of visceral leishmaniasis in Baringo District, Rift Valley Province, Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 89:471–475

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Sundar S, Singh RK, Maurya R, Kumar B, Chhabra A, Singh V, Rai M (2006) Serological diagnosis of Indian visceral leishmaniasis: direct agglutination test versus rK39 strip test. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100:533–537

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Sundar S, Maurya R, Singh RK, Bharti K, Chakravarty J, Parekh A, Rai M, Kumar K, Murray HW (2006) Rapid, noninvasive diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in India: comparison of two immunochromatographic strip tests for detection of anti-K39 antibody. J Clin Microbiol 44:251–253

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Ibrahim ME, Lambson B, Yousif AO, Deifalla NS, Alnaiem DA, Ismail A, Yousif H, Ghalib HW, Khalil EA, Kadaro A, Barker DC, El Hassan AM (1999) Kala-azar in a high transmission focus: an ethnic and geographic dimension. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61:941–944

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Burns JM Jr, Shreffler WG, Benson DR, Ghalib HW, Badaro R, Reed SG (1993) Molecular characterization of a kinesin-related antigen of Leishmania chagasi that detects specific antibody in African and American visceral leishmaniasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90:775–779

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Ritmeijer K, Melaku Y, Mueller M, Kipngetich S, O’keeffe C, Davidson RN (2006) Evaluation of a new recombinant K39 rapid diagnostic test for Sudanese visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74:76–80

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Veeken H, Ritmeijer K, Seaman J, Davidson R (2003) Comparison of an rK39 dipstick rapid test with direct agglutination test and splenic aspiration for the diagnosis of kala-azar in Sudan. Trop Med Int Health 8:164–167

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Diro E, Techane Y, Tefera T, Assefa Y, Kebede T, Genetu A, Kebede Y, Tesfaye A, Ergicho B, Gebre-Yohannes A, Mengistu G, Engers H, Aseffa A, Desjeux P, Boelaert M, Hailu A (2007) Field evaluation of FD-DAT, rk-39 dipstick and KATEX (urine latex agglutination) for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in northwest Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101:908–914

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Boelaert M, El-Safi S, Hailu A, Mukhtar M, Rijal S, Sundar S, Wasunna M, Aseffa A, Mbui J, Menten J, Desjeux P, Peeling RW (2008) Diagnostic tests for kala-azar: a multi-centre study of the freeze-dried DAT, rK39 strip test and KAtex in East-Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102:32–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Faber WR, Oskam L, van Gool T, Kroon NC, Knegt-Junk KJ, Hofwegen H, van der Wal AC, Kager PA (2003) Value of diagnostic techniques for cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 49:70

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Medeiros AC, Rodrigues SS, Roselino AM (2002) Comparison of the specificity of PCR and the histopathological detection of leishmania for the diagnosis of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Braz J Med Biol Res 35(4):421

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Weigle KA, Labrada LA, Lozano C, Santrich C, Barker DC (2002) PCR-based diagnosis of acute and chronic cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (Viannia). J Clin Microbiol 40(2):601–606

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Sundar S, More DK, Singh MK, Singh VP, Sharma S, Makharia A, Kumar PC, Murray HW (2000) Failure of pentavalent antimony in visceral leishmaniasis in India: report from the center of the Indian epidemic. Clin Infect Dis 31:1104–1107

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Rijal S, Chappuis F, Singh R, Bovier PA, Acharya P, Karki BM, Das ML, Desjeux P, Loutan L, Koirala S (2003) Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in south-eastern Nepal: decreasing efficacy of sodium stibogluconate and need for a policy to limit further decline. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97:350–354

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Sundar S, Thakur BB, Tandon AK, Agrawal NR, Mishra CP, Mahapatra TM, Singh VP (1994) Clinico-epidemiological study of drug resistance in Indian kala-azar. BMJ 308:307

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Sundar S, Sinha PR, Agrawal NK, Srivastava R, Rainey PM, Berman JD, Murray HW, Singh VP (1998) A cluster of severe antimony cardiotoxicity in kala-azar due to high osmolality lot. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59:139–143

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Thakur CP, Singh RK, Hassan SM, Kumar R, Narain S, Kumar A (1999) Amphotericin B deoxycholate treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with newer modes of administration and precautions: a study of 938 cases. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93:9–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Mishra M, Biswas UK, Jha DN, Khan AB (1992) Amphotericin versus pentamidine in antimony-unresponsive kala-azar. Lancet 340:1256–1257

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Olliaro P, Sundar S (2009) Anthropometrically derived dosing and drug costing calculations for treating visceral leishmaniasis in Bihar, India. Trop Med Int Health 14:88–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Sundar S, Chakravarty J, Agarwal D, Rai M, Murray HW (2010) Single-dose liposomal amphotericin B for visceral leishmaniasis in India. N Engl J Med 362:504–512

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Sundar S, Jha TK, Thakur CP, Engel J, Sindermann H, Fischer C, Junge K, Bryceson A, Berman J (2002) Oral miltefosine for Indian visceral leishmaniasis. N Engl J Med 347:1739–1746

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Sundar S, Murray HW (2005) Availability of miltefosine for the treatment of kala-azar in India. Bull World Health Organ 83:394–395

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Bhattacharya SK, Sinha PK, Sundar S, Thakur CP, Jha TK, Pandey K, Das VR, Kumar N, Lal C, Verma N, Singh VP, Ranjan A, Verma RB, Anders G, Sindermann H, Ganguly NK (2007) Phase IV trial of miltefosine in the treatment of Indian visceral leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 196:591–598

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Sundar S, Jha TK, Thakur CP, Sinha PK, Bhattacharya SK (2007) Injectable paromomycin for visceral leishmaniasis in India. N Engl J Med 356:2571–2581

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Sundar S, Rai M (2005) Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Expert Opin Pharmacother 6:2821–2829

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Sundar S, Rai M, Chakravarty J, Agarwal D, Agrawal N, Vaillant M, Olliaro P, Murray HW (2008) New treatment approach in indian visceral leishmaniasis: single-dose liposomal amphotericin b followed by short-course oral miltefosine. Clin Infect Dis 47:1000–1006

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Sundar S, Sinha PK, Rai M, Verma DK, Nawin K, Alam S, Chakravarty J, Vaillant M, Verma N, Pandey K, Kumari P, Lal CS, Arora R, Sharma B, Ellis S, Strub-Wourgaft N, Balasegaram M, Olliaro P, Das P, Modabber F (2011) Comparison of short-course multidrug treatment with standard therapy for visceral leishmaniasis in India: an open-label, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 377:477–486

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Ritmeijer K, Dejenie A, Assefa Y, Hundie TB, Mesure J, Boots G, den Boer M, Davidson RN (2006) A comparison of miltefosine and sodium stibogluconate for treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in an Ethiopian population with high prevalence of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis 43:357–364

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Nadim A, Javadian E, Tahvildar-Bidruni G, Ghorbani M (1983) Effectiveness of leishmanization in the control of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales 76:377–383

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Greenblatt CL (1988) Cutaneous leishmaniasis: the prospects for a killed vaccine. Parasitol Today 4:53–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Khalil EA, El Hassan AM, Zijlstra EE, Mukhtar MM, Ghalib HW, Musa B, Ibrahim ME, Kamil AA, Elsheikh M, Babiker A, Modabber F (2000) Autoclaved Leishmania major vaccine for prevention of visceral leishmaniasis: a randomised, double-blind, BCG-controlled trial in Sudan. Lancet 356:1565–1569

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Musa AM, Khalil EAG, Ismail A, Elhassan IM, Fesharki H, Khamesipour A, Modabber F, Zijlstra EE, El-Hassan AM (2005) Safety, immunogenicity and possible efficacy of immunochemotherapy of persistent post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Sudan J Dermatol 3:63–72

    Google Scholar 

  61. Skeiky YA, Coler RN, Brannon M, Stromberg E, Greeson K, Crane RT, Webb JR, Campos-Neto A, Reed SG (2002) Protective efficacy of a tandemly linked, multi-subunit recombinant leishmanial vaccine (Leish-111f) formulated in MPL adjuvant. Vaccine 20:3292–3303

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Reed SG, Coler RN, Campos-Neto A (2003) Development of a leishmaniasis vaccine: the importance of MPL. Expert Rev Vac 2:239–252

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Nascimento E, Fernandes DF, Vieira EP, Campos-Neto A, Ashman JA, Alves FP, Coler RN, Bogatzki LY, Kahn SJ, Beckmann AM, Pine SO, Cowgill KD, Reed SG, Piazza FM (2010) A clinical trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of the LEISH-F1  +  MPL-SE vaccine when used in combination with meglumine antimoniate for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Vaccine 28(40):6581–6587

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Llanos-Cuentas A, Calderón W, Cruz M, Ashman JA, Alves FP, Coler RN, Bogatzki LY, Bertholet S, Laughlin EM, Kahn SJ, Beckmann AM, Cowgill KD, Reed SG, Piazza FM (2010) A clinical trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of the LEISH-F1  +  MPL-SE vaccine when used in combination with sodium stibogluconate for the treatment of mucosal leishmaniasis. Vaccine 28(46):7427–7435

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Chakravarty J, Kumar S, Trivedi S, Rai VK, Singh A, Ashman JA, Laughlin EM, Coler RN, Kahn SJ, Beckmann AM, Cowgill KD, Reed SG, Sundar S, Piazza FM (2011) A clinical trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of the LEISH-F1  +  MPL-SE vaccine for use in the prevention of visceral leishmaniasis. Vaccine 29(19):3531–3537

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Alvar J, Molina R, San Andrés M, Tesouro M, Nieto J, Vitutia M, González F, San Andrés MD, Boggio J, Rodriguez F (1994) Canine leishmaniasis: clinical, parasitological and entomological follow-up after chemotherapy. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 88:371–378

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Gavgani AS, Hodjati MH, Mohite H, Davies CR (2002) Effect of insecticide-impregnated dog collars on incidence of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis in Iranian children: a matched-cluster randomised trial. Lancet 360:374–379

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Kaul SM, Sharma RS, Dey KP, Rai RN, Verghese T (1994) Impact of DDT indoor residual spraying on Phlebotomus argentipes in a kala-azar endemic village in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Bull World Health Organ 72:79–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Hassan MM, Elraba’a FM, Ward RD, Maingon RD, Elnaiem DA (2004) Detection of high rates of in-village transmission of Leishmania donovani in eastern Sudan. Acta Trop 92:77–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Bern C, Hightower AW, Chowdhury R, Ali M, Amann J, Wagatsuma Y, Haque R, Kurkjian K, Vaz LE, Begum M, Akter T, Cetre-Sossah CB, Ahluwalia IB, Dotson E, Secor WE, Breiman RF, Maguire JH (2005) Risk factors for kala-azar in Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis 11:655–662

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Bern C, Joshi AB, Jha SN, Das ML, Hightower A, Thakur GD, Bista MB (2000) Factors associated with visceral leishmaniasis in Nepal: bed-net use is strongly protective. Am J Trop Med Hyg 63:184–188

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Picado A, Singh SP, Rijal S, Sundar S, Ostyn B, Chappuis F, Uranw S, Gidwani K, Khanal B, Rai M, Paudel IS, Das ML, Kumar R, Srivastava P, Dujardin JC, Vanlerberghe V, Andersen EW, Davies CR, Boelaert M (2010) Longlasting insecticidal nets for prevention of Leishmania donovani infection in India and Nepal: paired cluster randomised trial. BMJ 341:c6760. doi:10.1136/bmj.c6760

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Ritmeijer K, Davies C, van Zorge R, Wang SJ, Schorscher J, Dongu’du SI, Davidson RN (2007) Evaluation of a mass distribution programme for fine-mesh impregnated bednets against visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Sudan. Trop Med Int Health 12:404–414

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Singh SP, Hasker E, Picado A, Gidwani K, Malaviya P, Singh RP, Boelaert M, Sundar S (2010) Risk factors for visceral leishmaniasis in India: further evidence on the role of domestic animals. Trop Med Int Health 15:29–35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Hotez PJ, Remme JH, Buss P, Alleyne G, Morel C, Breman JG (2004) Combating tropical infectious diseases: report of the Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries Project. Clin Infect Dis 38:871–878

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India

    Shyam Sundar M.D. & Jaya Chakravarty M.D.

Authors
  1. Shyam Sundar M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jaya Chakravarty M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shyam Sundar M.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Room 4179 CC, St. Michael's Hospital, University of Toronto, Bond Street 30, Toronto, M5B 1W8, Ontario, Canada

    I.W. Fong

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sundar, S., Chakravarty, J. (2013). Leishmaniasis: Challenges in the Control and Eradication. In: Fong, I. (eds) Challenges in Infectious Diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4496-1_8

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4496-1_8

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-4495-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-4496-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation