Energy Production and Storage

Abstract

Ceramic materials are an essential component of devices for production and storage of energy. Some of the topics covered in this chapter are summarized in Table 37.1. In many cases, a more efficient and cleaner process can be designed through the use of catalysts, or better catalysts. The problem is that the catalyst may change during use, and it is very difficult to see what is actually happening on the catalyst surface during the reaction.

1 People and History

Daniel, John Frederich (1790–1845) was Professor of Chemistry in London. He constructed the Daniel cell using an unglazed ceramic (earthenware) pot to allow ions to flow while keeping the two electrodes (Cu in CuSO₄ and Zn in H₂SO₄) apart—an early ceramic membrane.

Franklin, Benjamin (1706–1790) coined the term “battery” to describe a stack of capacitors that he had constructed! (Named after the artillery battery, which functions more effectively by grouping the components). The capacitors were plates of glass with metal coating on each surface.

Galvani, Luigi (1737–1798), from Bologna, was an early experimentalist using electric charge (hence the word galvanic). He is said to have inspired Volta’s invention because Volta disagreed with him!

Grätzel, Michael was born in 1944 in Dorfchemnitz, Sachsen. The dye-sensitized solar cell was invented in Grätzel’s laboratory at the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne in Switzerland. He is the author of over 800 publications and in 2010 received the Millennium Technology Prize (worth 800,000 euros), for development of the dye-sensitized solar cell.

Grove, William Robert (1811–1896), from Wales, used Zn in H₂SO₄ and Pt in HNO₄, separated by with a porous ceramic pot. He studied Classics at Brasenose, became a lawyer, and then was Professor of Experimental Philosophy (Physics). In 1839 or 1842, he developed the first fuel cell, the Grove cell, using the porous ceramic pot as a membrane.

Mwond, Ludig and Langer, Charles coined the term “fuel cell” in ~1889.

Steele, Brian Charles Hilton (1929–2003) was a pioneer in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Having worked at Morgan Crucible, he then became Professor at Imperial College and was a founder of Ceres Power and thesis advisor to M.G.N. He emphasized the need to make SOFCs work below 600°C.

Volta, Alessandro (1745–1827), born in Como and later Professor in Pavia, began the development of today’s battery with the Voltaic pile. This really was a large pile of pairs of metal plates (alternating of Zn and Ag), which were the electrodes, and cardboard soaked in brine, which was the electrolyte.

The SOFC uses a solid oxide so we should use a hyphen. Usually the hyphen is not used.

SolarWorld traces it roots to Solar Technology International, ARCO Solar, Siemens Solar, and Royal Dutch Shell. It now has a capacity of 500 MW p.a.

2 Exercises

• 37.1 The passage of α-particles through a ceramic are known to cause a few hundred Frenkel defects. What would be the most likely Frenkel defect in zircon? Write this defect using the Kröger-Vink notation.

• 37.2 MoO₂ has been proposed for lithium-ion battery anodes. Describe one synthesis method in the literature that produces nanostructured MoO₂. What were the noted advantages of this particular nanostructure?

• 37.3 Nanoparticle TiO₂ is the most widely used oxide for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Can you identify three other oxides, either from the literature or from thinking about the necessary properties of the electrode, that might be employed instead of TiO₂.

• 37.4 Figure 37.6 shows CdSe quantum dots (QDs). Give three other materials that might work as QDs for QD-sensitized solar cells. Also, find their band gap energies and compare the values with the band gap of CdSe.

• 37.5 In Table 37.1 we refer to “AM1.5.” What is AM1.5, and why do we use this value to characterize and compare solar cells?

• 37.6 Figure 37.4 shows a multijunction (actually a triple junction) solar cell. The top layer is an antireflective coating. What material or materials would be suitable for this application, and are they ceramics based on our definition in Section 1.1? [Hint: search patents at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (www.uspto.gov), where you can find what is actually used].

• 37.7 One choice for a lithium battery (LiB) anode is graphitic carbon because the Li can intercalate between the graphene layers. Which material or materials in Chapter 6 might, at least from a structural point of view, be possible LiB anodes? Has anyone tried that material, and if so how well did it work?

• 37.8 Using the data in Table 37.3, plot ${C_g}$ versus ${S_{DFT}}$. What do you notice about the relationship between ${C_g}$ versus ${S_{DFT}}$? What does this tell you about considering surface area as the only variable affecting ${C_g}$?

• 37.9 Figure 37.12 Shows a cantilever piezoelectric generator. If you were designing such a device, how would you propose applying the PZT film to the brass substrate?

• 37.10 Using the Ragone plot in Figure 37.7, mark the specific region of the diagram occupied by lithium-ion batteries. How does this compare to other forms of battery, such as metal hydride and lead acid?

• 37.11 Where are the world’s largest deposits of lithium?

• 37.12 There are three major ultracapacitor manufacturers in the world. Name those companies, and find out the size of the total ultracapacitor market.

• 37.13 Ultracapacitors are used on the A380 Airbus and in the Toyota Prius. Find three other applications for ultracapacitors.

• 37.14 MoO₂ has been shown to be effective in reforming bio-based aviation fuels. What is the typical composition of such a fuel? What are the major differences between kerosene-based aviation fuels such as Jet-A and bio-based fuels?

• 37.15 Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is one type of piezoelectric ceramic that has been used in energy-harvesting devices. Can you find other examples of ceramics used for this application? If not, why not?

• 37.16 Table 37.5 lists the production of methanol from syngas (a mixture of CO and H₂) using a copper catalyst supported on Al₂O₃ with ZnO. Using the literature or the Internet, find out the temperature at which this reaction occurs. Are there other catalysts that have been used for this reaction?

• 37.17 Ceramics are often used as catalyst supports. Find three examples of specific reactions that are catalyzed by catalysts supported on ceramics.

• 37.18 What are the regions of dark contrast (the dark lines) in the transmission electron microscopy image of the ZnO nanobelts? Do you think these lines have any impact on the piezoelectric properties?

• 37.19 The nanostructured aluminas in Table 37.5 were developed to absorb arsenic. Why is it necessary to absorb arsenic?

• 37.20 MSU-X is a commercial mesoporous alumina from Sigma-Aldrich. How much does it cost? What is the main application (or applications) for this material?