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Notes
- 1.
There are a few small volume, unique, “end-of-life” scenarios, such as satellite retirement, or disposition of human remains with embedded lithium-ion cells.
- 2.
Jehoulet C, Biensan P, Bodet JM, Broussely M, Moteau C, Tessier-Lescourret C, “Influence of the solvent composition on the passivation mechanism of the carbon electrode in lithium-ion prismatic cells,” Proceedings, Symposium on Batteries for Portable Applications and Electric Vehicles, 1997.
- 3.
Lange L, “Squeeze on Li-ion batteries,” Electronic Engineering Times, 875, November 20, 1995, p. 1 http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EKF/is_n2091_v41/ai_17810000/
- 4.
Additional information provided by the National Research Institute of Fire and Disaster (NRIFD), Japan.
- 5.
Hara Y, “Matsushita expects no shortage of Li-ion cells—Fire raises battery fears,” Electronic Engineering Times, September 1, 1997, p. 28.
- 6.
Hammerschmidt C, “Fire causes heavy damage in battery factory,” EE Times, August 22, 2008, http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4192993/Fire-causes-heavy-damage-in-battery-factory.
- 7.
- 8.
PHMSA-2009-0095.
- 9.
IATA estimates the number of Li-ion and lithium primary cells shipped by air in 2008 was approximately 1.2 billion. PHMSA-2009-0095-0047.1, The Association of Hazmat Shippers estimates that 3.3 billion cells were shipped in 2008: PHMSA-2009-0095-0050.1.
- 10.
PHMSA-2009-0095-0117.
- 11.
PHMSA-2009-0095-0173.
- 12.
FAA Office of Security and Hazardous Materials, “Batteries & Battery-Powered Devices, Aviation Incidents Involving Smoke, Fire, Extreme Heat or Explosion, incidents recorded as of March 20, 1991, through August 3, 2010, http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ash/ash_programs/hazmat/aircarrier_info/media/Battery_incident_chart.pdf.
- 13.
Richard B, “Lithium Battery Update,” Office of Hazardous Materials Safety, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, US Department of Transportation, September 2009.
- 14.
Webster H, “Lithium Battery Update, Recent Battery Incidents,” FAA, November 17, 2009.
- 15.
UN/SCETDG/31/INF.41, Committee of Experts on the Transportation of Dangerous Goods and on the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals, Sub-Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, 31st Session, Geneva, 2–6 July 2007, Item 3 of the provisional agenda.
- 16.
DGP/22-IP/4, Dangerous Goods Panel (DGP) 22nd Meeting, Montreal, 5–16 October 2009, Enhanced Requirements for the Transport of Lithium Batteries.
- 17.
PHMSA-2009-0095-0077.1.
- 18.
PHMSA-2009-0095-0062.
- 19.
Exact failure rates of lithium-ion cells and battery packs in the field are not published. Due to confidentiality requirements, the CPSC publishes very limited information regarding the circumstances of failures that have triggered lithium-ion cell recall actions. Failure rates are not published, nor are specific details regarding individual battery failures. Occasionally battery failures are reported in news stories. However, these reports generally do not contain details sufficient to make a determination regarding the cause of failure, or the rate of failure or the products described. In addition, some incidents reported in the news have later been found to have been the result of user abuse rather than a defect in the battery. OEM investigations of failed product are generally kept confidential. Therefore, it is very difficult to determine the rate of failure of cells in the field. However, in Exponent’s experience, when OEMs work with the CPSC to determine if a recall on a lithium-ion battery is warranted, barring evidence of a specific manufacturing defect, if failure rates are below 1 in 1-million cells, CPSC generally agrees that a recall is not warranted.
- 20.
- 21.
PHMSA-2009-0095-0181.
- 22.
At the time of this writing, both California and New York have regulations that ban or will ban disposal of lithium-ion batteries in municipal waste. See Kerchner G, “Regulatory and Legislative Update,” Proceedings, 28th International Battery Seminar and Exhibit, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, March 14–17, 2011.
- 23.
- 24.
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Mikolajczak, C., Kahn, M., White, K., Long, R.T. (2011). Life Cycles of Lithium-Ion Cells. In: Lithium-Ion Batteries Hazard and Use Assessment. SpringerBriefs in Fire. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3486-3_5
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