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Notes
- 1.
Linden’s Handbook of Batteries, 4th Edition, Thomas B. Reddy (ed), McGraw Hill, NY, 2011.
- 2.
Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 3.
Under certain abuse conditions, lithium metal in very small quantities can plate onto anode surfaces. However, this should not have any appreciable effect on the fire behavior of the cell.
- 4.
There has been some discussion about the possibility of “thermite-style” reactions occurring within cells (reaction of a metal oxide with aluminum, for example iron oxide with aluminum, the classic thermite reaction, or in the case of lithium-ion cells cobalt oxide with aluminum current collector). Even if thermodynamically favored (based on the heats of formation of the oxides), generally these types of reactions require intimate mixtures of fine powders of both species to occur. Thus, the potential for aluminum current collector to undergo a thermite-style reaction with a cathode material may be possible, but aluminum in bulk is difficult to ignite (Babrauskas V, Ignition Handbook, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 2003, p. 870) and thus, the reaction may be kinetically hindered. Ignition temperatures of thermite style reactions are heavily dependent upon surface properties. Propagation of such reactions can also be heavily dependent upon mixture properties. To date, Exponent has not observed direct evidence of thermite style reactions within cells that have undergone thermal runaway reactions, nor is Exponent aware of any publically available research assessing the effect of such reactions on cell overall heat release rates. Nonetheless, even if a specific cell design is susceptible to a thermite reaction, that reaction will represent only a portion of the resulting fire, such that the use of metal fire suppression techniques will remain inappropriate.
- 5.
Note that the term “lithium polymer” has been previously used to describe lithium metal rechargeable cells that utilized a polymer-based electrolyte. The term lithium polymer is now used to describe a wide range of lithium-ion cells enclosed in soft pouches with electrolyte that may or may not be polymer based.
- 6.
For a more detailed discussion of lithium-ion cells see: Dahn J, Ehrlich GM, “Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Linden’s Handbook of Batteries, 4th Edition, TB Reddy (ed), McGraw Hill, NY, 2011.
- 7.
For a review of various safety mechanisms that can be applied to lithium-ion cells see: Balakrishnan PG, Ramesh R, Prem Kumar T, “Safety mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries,” Journal of Power Source, 155 (2006), 401–414.
- 8.
A safe voltage range will be a range in which the cell electrodes will not rapidly degrade due to lithium plating, copper dissolution, or other undesirable reactions.
- 9.
Some specialty lithium-ion cells are available commercially that allow discharge to 0 V (e.g., see http://www.quallion.com/sub-mm-implantable.asp).
- 10.
Some commercially available lithium-ion cells can be charged to higher than 4.2 V; however, these are fairly rare.
- 11.
Brodd RJ, Tagawa K, “Lithium-Ion Cell Production Processes,” Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 12.
For a detailed discussion of carbon anode materials, see: Ogumi A, Inaba M, “Carbon Anodes,” Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 13.
For a detailed discussion of oxide cathode materials, see: Goodenough JB, “Oxide Cathodes,” Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 14.
Pillot C, “Present and Future Market Situation For Batteries,” Proceedings, Batteries 2009, September 30–October 2, 2009, French Riviera; Pillot C, “Main Trends for Rechargeable Battery Market 2009–2020,” Proceedings, Batteries 2010, September 29–October 1, 2010, French Riviera.
- 15.
Jiang J, Dahn J, Electrochem. Comm. 6, 1, 39–43, 2003.
- 16.
Takahashi M, Tobishima S, Takei K, Sakurai Y, Solid State Ionics, 3–4, 283–298, 2002.
- 17.
For a detailed discussion of electrolytes, see: Yamaki J-I, “Liquid Electrolytes,” Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 18.
For a detailed discussion of gelled electrolytes, see: Nishi Y, “Lithium-Ion Secondary Batteries with Gelled Polymer Electrolytes,” Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 19.
For a detailed discussion of the roll of SEI and other surface films, see: Aurbach D, “The Role of Surface Films on Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries,” Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 20.
Jehoulet C, Biensan P, Bodet JM, Broussely M, Moteau C, Tessier-Lescourret C, “Influence of the solvent composition on the passivation mechanism of the carbon electrode in lithium-ion prismatic cells,” Proceedings, Symposium on Batteries for Portable Applications and Electric Vehicles, 1997.
- 21.
Roth EP, Crafts CC, Doughty DH, McBreen J, “Advanced Technology Development Program for Lithium-Ion Batteries: Thermal Abuse Performance of 18650 Li-Ion Cells,” Sandia Report: SAND2004-0584, March 2004.
- 22.
White K, Horn Q, Singh S, Spray R, Budiansky N, “Thermal Stability of Lithium-ion Cells as Functions of Chemistry, Design and Energy,” Proceedings, 28th International Battery Seminar and Exhibit, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, March 14–17, 2011.
- 23.
Webber A, Blomgren GE, “Ionic Liquids for Lithium-Ion and Related Batteries,” Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 24.
Smart MC, Ratnakumar BV, Chin KB, Whitcanak LD, Lithium-Ion Electrolytes Containing Ester Cosolvents for Improved Low Temperature Performance, J. Electrochem. Soc., 157(12), (2010), pp. A1361–A1374 (2010).
- 25.
- 26.
Zhang SS, “A review on the separators of liquid electrolyte Li-ion batteries,” Journal of Power Sources, 164 (2007), pp. 351–364.
- 27.
Arora P, Zhang Z, “Battery Separators,” Chemical Reviews, 104 (2004), pp. 4419–4462.
- 28.
Roth EP, Doughty DH, Pile DL, “Effects of separator breakdown on abuse response of 18650 Li-ion cells,” Journal of Power Sources, 174 (2007), pp. 579–583.
- 29.
CEI/IEC 61960 2003-12, Secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline or other non-acid electrolytes—Secondary lithium cells and batteries for portable applications, International Electrotechnical Commission.
- 30.
- 31.
Should a safety vent not operate properly, on thermal runaway a cell case could rupture at an elevated pressure and distribute cell materials over a wide radius, such rupture is sometimes called “rapid disassembly.”
- 32.
Exponent observed despite pouch swelling behavior it remains possible to drive prismatic and pouch cells into thermal runaway.
- 33.
Jeevarajan J, “Performance and Safety Tests on Lithium-Ion Cells Arranged in a Matrix Design Configuration,” Space Power Workshop, The 2010 Space Power Workshop, Manhattan Beach, CA, April 20–22, 2010.
- 34.
Smith K, Kim GH, Darcy E, Pesaran A, “Thermal/electrical modeling for abuse-tolerant design of lithium ion modules,” International Journal of Energy Research, 34 (2010), pp. 204–215.
- 35.
For a detailed discussion of charging algorithms see: van Schlakwijk WA, “Charging, Monitoring and Control,” Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries, WA van Schalkwijk and B Scrosati (eds), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2002.
- 36.
For a more detailed discussion of lithium-ion protection electronics design see: Friel DD, “Battery Design,” Linden’s Handbook of Batteries, 4th Edition, TB Reddy (ed), McGraw Hill, NY, 2011.
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Mikolajczak, C., Kahn, M., White, K., Long, R.T. (2011). Introduction to Lithium-Ion Cells and Batteries. In: Lithium-Ion Batteries Hazard and Use Assessment. SpringerBriefs in Fire. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3486-3_1
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