Skip to main content

Emotions and Motivation in Learning and Performance

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology

Abstract

This chapter reviews theories and research on academic emotions and motivation that can be integrated into the processes of instructional design and development. First, we discuss the impact of emotions in learning and performance contexts. Second, we review theories describing how emotions occur. Third, we discuss how to optimize emotional experiences in learning and performance contexts and review several models and approaches that can be used in instructional design. Fourth, we review instruments and technologies measuring emotions and emotion regulation. We conclude the chapter by suggesting future research directions including reframing motivation research that considers emotions in the realm of educational communications and technology.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aarts, H., Dijksterhuis, A., & Dik, G. (2008). Goal contagion: Inferring goals from others’ actions—and what it leads to. In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 265–280). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ainley, M. (2006). Connecting with learning: Motivation, affect and cognition in interest processes. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 391–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aist, G., Kort, B., Reilly, R., Picard, R. W., & Mostow, J. (2002). Experimentally augmenting an intelligent tutoring system with human-supplied capabilities: Adding human-provided emotional Scaffolding to an automated reading tutor that listens. Proceedings of the Intelligent Tutoring Systems Conference (ITS2002) (pp. 483–490). Pittsburgh, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alsmeyer, M., Luckin, R., Judith, G., & Harris, E. (2009). Supporting affective communication in the classroom with the Subtle Stone. International Journal of Learning Technology, 4(3–4), 188–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Astleitner, H. (2000). Designing emotionally sound instruction: The FEASP-approach. Instructional Science, 28(3), 169–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astleitner, H. (2001). Designing emotionally sound instruction: An empirical validation of the FEASP approach. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 28(4), 209–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balaam, M., Fitzpatrick, G., Good, J., & Luckin, R. (2010). Exploring affective technologies for the classroom with the Subtle Stone. Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1623–1632). Atlanta, GA, USA: ACM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bickmore, T., & Cassell, J. (2004). Social dialogue with embodied conversational agents. In J. van Kuppevelt, L. Dybkjaer, & N. Bernsen (Eds.), Natural, intelligent and effective interaction with multimodal dialogue systems. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaney, P. H. (1986). Affect and memory: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 99(2), 229–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36(2), 129–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breckler, S. J. (1994). Memory for the experience of donating blood: Just how bad was it? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 467–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buck, R. (1985). Prime theory: An integrated view of motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(3), 389–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buck, R. (1999). The biological affects: A typology. Psychological Review, 106(2), 301–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, R. H., Grimshaw, M. N., & Green, G. (2009). Relational agents: A critical review. The Open Virtual Reality Journal, 1, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A Control-Process View. Psychological Review, 97(1), 19–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coan, J. A., & Allen, J. J. B. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 171–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Mello, S., & Graesser, A. C. (2010). Multimodal semi-automated affect detection from conversational cues, gross body language, and facial features. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction., 20(2), 147–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeSteno, D., Petty, R. E., Rucker, D. D., Wegener, D. T., & Braverman, J. (2004). Discrete emotions and persuasion: The role of emotion-induced expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 43–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2008). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Dweck, C. S. (1992). The study of goals in psychology. Psychological Science, 3(3), 165–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. (1983). Expectancies, values and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). San Francisco: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Rosenberg, E. L. (Eds.). (1997). What the face reveals: Basic and applied studies of spontaneous expression using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • *El Kaliouby, R., Picard, R. W., Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Affective computing and autism. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1093, 228–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, M. E. (1992). Motivating humans: Goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgas, J. P. (2000). Affect and information processing strategies: An interactive relationship. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in social cognition (pp. 253–280). Paris: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). Cultivated emotions: Parental socialization of positive emotions and self-conscious emotions. Psychological Inquiry, 9(4), 279–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., Lüdtke, O., Pekrun, R., & Sutton, R. (2009). Emotional transmission in the classroom: Exploring the relationship between teacher and student enjoyment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 705–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frijda, N. H., Kuipers, P., & Schure, E. (1989). Relations among emotion, appraisal, and emotional action readiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(2), 212–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garnefski, N., & Kraaij, V. (2007). The cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire: Psychometric features and prospective relationships with depression and anxiety in adults. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23(3), 141–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., & Spinhoven, P. (2001). Negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation, and emotional problems. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 1311–1327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gläser-Zikuda, M., Fuß, S., Laukenmann, M., Metz, K., & Randler, C. (2005). Promoting students’ emotions and achievement—instructional design and evaluation of the ECOLE-approach. Learning and Instruction, 15(5), 481–495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, T., Pekrun, R., Hall, N., & Haag, L. (2006). Academic emotions from a social-cognitive perspective: Antecedents and domain specificity of students’ affect in the context of Latin instruction. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(2), 289–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez-Sanchez, J., Christopherson, R. M., Chavez-Echeagaray, M. E., Gibson, D. C., Atkinson, R., & Burleson, W. (2011). How to do multimodal detection of affective states? Proceedings of the 11th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) (pp. 654–655), Athens, GA, USA: IEEE Computer Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L.F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 497–512). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hannula, M. S. (2006). Motivation in mathematics: Goals reflected in emotions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 63(2), 165–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hertel, G., Neuhof, J., Theuer, T., & Kerr, N. L. (2000). Mood effects on cooperation in small groups: Does positive mood simply lead to more cooperation? Cognition and Emotion, 14(4), 441–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodges, C., & Kim, C. (2010). Email, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and achievement in a college online mathematics course. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 43(2), 207–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmberg, D., & Holmes, J. G. (1994). Reconstruction of relationship memories: A mental models approach. In N. Schwarz & S. Sudman (Eds.). Autobiographical memory and the validity of retrospective reports (pp. 267–288). New York: Springer–Verlag.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M. (2000). Some perspectives on positive affect and self-regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 11(3), 184–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Mancini, F. (2006). A hyper-emotion theory of psychological illnesses. Psychological Review, 113(4), 822–841.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Keller, J. M. (1987). Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn. Performance and Instruction, 26, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Keller, J. M. (2008) An integrative theory of motivation, volition, and performance. Technology, Instruction, Cognition, and Learning, 6, 79–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Keller, J. M. (2010). Motivational design for learning and performance: The ARCS model approach. New York, NY: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Kim, C., & Balaam, M. (2011). Monitoring affective and motivational aspects of learning experience with the Subtle Stone. Proceedings of the 11th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) (pp. 640–641). Athens, GA, USA: IEEE Computer Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Kim, C., & Hodges, C. (2012). Effects of an emotion control treatment on academic emotions, motivation and achievement in an online mathematics course. Instructional Science. 40(1), 173–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, C., & Keller, J. M. (2008). Effects of motivational and volitional email messages (MVEM) with personal messages on undergraduate students’ motivation, study habits and achievement. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), 36–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, C., & Keller, J. M. (2010). Motivation, volition, and belief change strategies to improve mathematics learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(5), 407–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, C., & Keller, J. M. (2011). Towards technology integration: The impact of motivational and volitional email messages. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59(1), 91–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, C., +Park, S. W., & Cozart, J. (2013). Affective and motivational factors of online math learning. British Journal of Educational Technology. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-8535.2012.01382.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Levine, L. J., & Pizarro, D. A. (2004). Emotion and memory research: A grumpy overview. Social Cognition, 22(5), 530–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lepper, M. R. (1970). Anxiety and experimenter valence as determinants of social reinforce effectiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 704–709.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Linnenbrink, E. A. (2006). Emotion research in education: Theoretical and methodological perspectives on the integration of affect, motivation, and cognition. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 307–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2002). Achievement goal theory and affect: An asymmetrical bidirectional model. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 69–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2000). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martindale, T., Pearson, C., Curda, L. K., & Pilcher, J. (2005). Effects of an online instructional application on reading and mathematics standardized test scores. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 37(4), 349–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Meyer, D. K., & Turner, J. C. (2002). Discovering emotion in classroom motivation research. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 107–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Meyer, D. K., & Turner, J. C. (2006). Re-conceptualizing emotion and motivation to learn in classroom contexts. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 377–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Meyer, D. K., & Turner, J. C. (2007). Scaffolding emotions in classrooms. In K. Schultz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotions in education (pp. 243–258). London: Academic Press

    Google Scholar 

  • *Op’t Eynde, P., Corte, E., & Verschaffel, L. (2006). “Accepting emotional complexity”: A socio-constructivist perspective on the role of emotions in the mathematics classroom. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 63(2), 193–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Op’t Eynde, P., & Turner, J. E. (2006). Focusing on the complexity of emotion issues in academic learning: A dynamical component systems approach. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 361–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, S. W., & Kim, C. (2012). A design framework for a virtual tutee system to promote academic reading engagement in a college classroom. Journal of Applied Instructional Design, 2(1), 17–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, O., & Lee, J. (1996). Adaptive instructional systems. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 651–684). Maway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parrott, W. G., & Spackman, M. P. (2000). Emotion and memory. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 476–490). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Pekrun, R. (1992). The impact of emotions on learning and achievement: Towards a theory of cognitive/motivational mediators. Applied Psychology, 41(4), 359–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 315–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2006). Achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: A theoretical model and prospective test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 583–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2009). Achievement goals and achievement emotions: Testing a model of their joint relations with academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 115–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Daniels, L. M., Stupnisky, R. H., & Perry, R. P. (2010). Boredom in achievement settings: Control-value antecedents and performance outcomes of a neglected emotion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 531–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Perry, R. P., Kramer, K., Hochstadt, M., & Molfenter, S. (2004). Beyond test anxiety: Development and validation of the test emotions questionnaire (TEQ). Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17(3), 287–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic ­emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 91–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Picard, R. W. (2003). Affective computing: Challenges. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 59(1–2), 55–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Picard, R. W. (2010). Emotion research by the people, for the people. Emotion Review, 2(3), 250–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plutchik, R. (1980). Emotion: A psychoevolutionary synthesis. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roseman, I. J., Wiest, C., & Swartz, T. S. (1994). Phenomenology, behaviors, and goals differentiate discrete emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 206–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosiek, J. (2003). Emotional scaffolding: An exploration of the teacher knowledge at the intersection of student emotion and the subject matter. Journal of Teacher Education, 54(5), 399–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosiek, J., & Beghetto, R. A. (2009). Emotional scaffolding: The emotional and imaginative dimensions of teaching and learning. In P. A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 175–194). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • *Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheirer, J., Fernandez, R., Klein, J., & Picard, R. W. (2002). Frustrating the user on purpose: A step toward building an affective computer. Interacting with Computers, 14(2), 93–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schiefele, U., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1995). Motivation and ability as factors in mathematics experience and achievement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 26(2), 163–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Scherer, K. R. (1999). Appraisal theory. In T. Dalgleish & M. Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 637–663). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Schutz, P., & Davis, H. A. (2000). Emotions and self-regulation during test taking. Educational Psychologist, 35(4), 243–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Schutz, P., & Davis, H. A. (2010). Emotion regulation reltaed to a particular test. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Education Research New Educational Paradigm for Learning and Instruction (pp. 57–59). Seoul, South Korea: Seould National University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schutz, P. A., DiStefano, C., Benson, J., & Davis, H. A. (2004). The development of a scale for emotional regulation during test taking. Anxiety, Stress and Coping: An International Journal, 17, 253–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Schutz, P. A., Hong, J. Y., Cross, D. I., & Osbon, J. N. (2006). Reflections on investigating emotion in educational activity settings. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 343–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 527–561). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Schwarz, N. (2000). Emotion, cognition, and decision making. Cognition and Emotion, 14(4), 433–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seel, N. M. (2007). Empirical perspectives on memory and motivation. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. J. G. van Merrienboer, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (3rd ed., pp. 39–54). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Seifert, T. (1995). Academic goals and emotions: A test of two models. The Journal of Psychology, 129(5), 543–552.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephens, E. J., & Pekrun, R. (2011, January). Affective antecedents of achievement goals: Effects of anger, fear, and enjoyment on achievement goal adoption. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Antonio, TX

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C., & Patrick, H. (2008). How does motivation develop and why does it change? Reframing motivation research. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 119–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2009). Leveling up and down: The experiences of benign and malicious envy. Emotion, 9(3), 419–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2011). Why envy outperforms admiration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(6), 784–795.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolf, B., Burleson, W., Arroyo, I., Dragon, T., Cooper, D., & Picard, R. W. (2009). Affect-aware tutors: Recognising and responding to student affect. International Journal of Learning Technology, 4(3/4), 129–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to ChanMin Kim .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kim, C., Pekrun, R. (2014). Emotions and Motivation in Learning and Performance. In: Spector, J., Merrill, M., Elen, J., Bishop, M. (eds) Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics