Abstract
What I’d like to do here is to tell three stories that I hope are loosely connected. The first is a brief personal account of how I got interested in the history of the Soviet space programme, joining others in the West who were trying to uncover its secrets. When I began to study the Soviet space programme in the late 1970s, the names of its major architects were little known. In the second part of the essay, I explain how the names and identities of the most prominent designers behind the programme came to public attention. They include Sergei Korolev, Valentin Glushko, Mikhail Yangel, Vladimir Chelomey, and Vasily Mishin. Whilst I was not personally involved in this sleuthing - which occurred mostly in the 1960s and 1970s - the process of pulling back the curtains was very influential in my own work. Finally, in the concluding section, I build on the first two sections - the personal and the investigative aspects of sleuthing - and present some reflections on my journey into the archives in the post-Soviet period. I show how some of my work has helped to deepen our knowledge of the lives and works of men like Korolev, Glushko and Chelomey, and how my own voyage into the depths of the programme has come full circle: I have now met many veterans who worked with men like Korolev and Chelomey, giants whose very lives and works I was trying to uncover.
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I. Peresadka na orbite I Transfer in Orbit (Moscow: Novosti, 1969). The text was both in English and Russian.
G. V. Petrovich, ed., The Soviet Encyclopedia of Space Flight (Moscow: Mir Publishers, 1969).
Reginald Tumill, The Observer's Book of Manned Spaceflight (London: F. Warne, 1975). This was a revised edition of a book that originally came out in 1972. A third edition came out in 1978.
James E. Oberg, Red Star in Orbit (New York: Random House, 1981).
By 1985, the following editions had been published: Soviet Space Programs (published in 1962), Soviet Space Programs, 1962-65 (1966), Soviet Space Programs, 1966-70 (1971), Soviet Space Programs, 1971-75, 2 vo1s. (1976), and Soviet Space Programs, 1976-80, 3 vo1s. (1982, 1984, and 1985).
Nicholas L. Johnson, The Soviet Reach for the Moon (Washington, DC: Cosmos Books, 1994). A second edition was published in 1995.
Asif A. Siddiqi, "Soviet Space Programmeme- Organisational Structure in the 1960s." Spaceflight 36 (August 1994): 283-86 and 36 (September 1994): 317-20; Asif A. Siddiqi, "Mourning Star: The Nedelin Disaster." Quest 3, no. 4 (1994): 38-47.
Dennis Newkirk, Almanac of Soviet Manned Space Flight (Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1990). See also his "Soviet Space Planes," Spaceflight 32 (October 1990): 350-355.
Asif Siddiqi and Dennisk Newkirk, "The FGB Module of the International Space Station Alpha: A Historical Overview of its Lineage and Organizational Origins," Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT), Charlottesville, VA, October 21, 1995.
Asif A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945- 1974 (Washington, DC: NASA, 2000). This book was later republished in paperback in two separate volumes: Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Gainesville, Fla.: University Press of Florida, 2003) and The Soviet Space Race with Apollo (Gainesville, Fla.: University Press of Florida, 2003).
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Harry Schwartz, "Soviet Reticent on Space Chiefs," New York Times, October 5, 1959, p. 16. Khrushchev made the speech on July 9, 1958 in Bitterfield, East Germany.
There is, in fact, a whole book in the Russian language devoted to his contributions to aeronautics. See G. S. Vetrov, S. P. Korolev i aviatsii. Idei. Proyekty. Konstruktsii [S. P. Korolev and Aviation. Ideas. Projects. Designs] (Moscow: Nauka, 1988).
See Krasnaya zvezda, October 24, 1930 and November 10, 1930.
Vestnik vozdushnogoflota no. 2 (1931). Korolev was also mentioned in journals such as Samolet (Airplane) and Nauka i tekhniki (Science and Technology) and other newspapers such as Izvestiya (News) and Vechernyaya moskva (Evening Moscow).
S. P. Korolev, Raketnyy polet v stratosfere [Rocket Flight into the Stratosphere] (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoye voyennoye izdatel'stvo, 1934).
Reviews were published in the newspaper Za rulem (March 21, 1935) and the journal Kniga i proletarskaya revolyutsiya (nos. 11-12, 1935, pp. 145-150).
S. P. Korolev, "K zavoyevaniyu stratosferu" ["To Master the Stratosphere"], Tekhnicheskaya kniga no 6 (1937): 98-99.
For details about his arrest and incarceration, see Asif A. Siddiqi, The Red Rockets' Glare: Spaceflight and the Soviet Imagination, 1857-1957 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), Chapter 5.
S. Korolev, "Osnvopolozhnik raketnoy tekhniki" ["Founder of Rocket Technology"], Pravda, September 17, 1957.
Asif A. Siddiqi, "Germans in Russia: Cold War, Technology Transfer, and National Identity" in Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 24 (Science and National Identity), eds. Carol E. Harrison and Ann Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), pp. 120-143.
Irmgard Grottrup, Rocket Wife (London: Andre Deutch, 1969). See also Gerald Schroder, "How Russian Engineering Looked To a Captured German Scientist," Aviation Week, May 9, 1955, pp. 27 34.
CIA, A Summary of Soviet Guided Missile Intelligence, US/UK GM M-52, July 20, 1953, p. L45.
CIA, Office of Scientific Intelligence, Scientific Research Institute and Experimental Factory 88 for Guided Missile Development, MoskvajKaliningrad, OSI-C-RA/60-2, Scientific Intelligence Research Aid, March 4, 1960, pp. 11, 29.
CIA, National Intelligence Estimate 11-5-61: Soviet Technical Capabilities in Guided Missiles and Space Vehicles, Washington, D.C., April 25, 1961, p. 50.
V. A. Yegorov, "Iz vospominaniy o M.l. Lidovye" ["From Recollections about M. I. Lidov"], Kosmicheskiye issledovaniya [Space Research] no. 5 (2001): 451- 453.
Yaroslav Golovanov, Korolev: fakty i mify [Korolev: Facts and Myths] (Moscow: Nauka, 1994), p. 553.
For the final published version, see Christian Lardier, "Soviet Space Designers When They Were Secret" in History of Rocketry and Astronautics, AAS History Series, Vol. 25, eds. Herve Moulin and Donald C. Elder (Novato, CA: Univelt, 2003), pp. 319-334.
Korolev's pieces (under the pseudonym "K. Sergeyev") were published in Pravda on December 10, 1957, November 10, 1960, October 14, 1961, December 31, 1961, January 1, 1964, January 1, 1965, and January 1, 1966.
G. V. Petrovich, "Vlasteliny ognennogo vodopada" ["Masters of Fire Falls"], Komsomol'skaya pravda, August 14 and 15, 1962, p. 2 (both issues).
Documents from Russian archives now confirm this aspect ofTokaev's mission. See the several dozen pages of documents stored in the Russian State Archive of the Economy (RGAE), fond [fund] 8044, opis' [inventory] I, delo [file] 1647, listov [pages] 2-169.
" 'Agent' for Stalin Flees Soviet Zone," New York Times, September I, 1948, p. 4; "TASS Writer Calls Tokayev 'Traitor'," New York Times, September 7, 1948, p. 8. Tokaty died in Cheam, Surrey on November 23, 2003.
For example, he claimed that "Professor G. Petrovich" was a real person and not a pseudonym for Valentin Glushko. Tokaty published two books on his experiences as a Soviet scientist, each with slightly different stories about the Sanger episode. See G. A. Tokaev, Stalin Means War (London: George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., 1951); G. A. Tokaev, Comrade X (London: The Harvill Press, 1956).
The text of his lecture was published in two places: G. A. Tokaty, "Soviet Space Technology," Spaceflight 63 (1963): 58-64; G. A. Tokaty, "Soviet Rocket Technology," Technology and Culture 4 no. 4 (1963): 515-528.
Theodore Shabad, "Soviet Space Planners' Identity Believed Known," New York Times, November 12, 1963, p. 2. For background to this story, see also Nicholas Daniloff, The Kremlin and the Cosmos (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), pp. 67-70.
Aerospace Information Division, Library of Congress, Top Personalities in the Soviet Space Programme (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, May 26, 1964).
M. Arlazorov, "Vse limy znayem o tsiolkovsom?" in Nashi kosmicheskaya puti, eds., S. V. Kurlyandskiya and N. Ts. Stepanyan (Moscow: Sovetskya rossiya, 1962).
Theodore Shabad, "Soviet Lifts Edge of Rocket Shroud," New York Times, November 7, 1965, p. 16.
William Shelton, "The Russians Mean to Win the Space Race," Fortune Vol. 73 no. 2 (February 1966): 140-143, 174-185.
Shelton's book was published in 1968: see Soviet Space Exploration: The First Decade (New York: Washington Square Press, 1968).
"Sergei P. Korolev Is Dead at 59; Leading Soviet Space Scientist," New York Times, January 16, 1966, p. 82. For other obituaries, see "Russians' Space Ship Designer Korolev Dies," Washington Post, January 16, 1966, p. 4; "Sergei Pavlovich Korolev: He Put Red Flag on the Moon," New York Herald Tribune, January 16, 1966, p. 7.
Webb to Frutkin, January 15, 1966, Biographical Files for Sergei Korolev, NASA History Division, Washington, DC.
"The Secret Scientist," New York Times, January 20, 1966, p. 32.
"Soviet Scientists Hail Apollo Flight," New York Times, December 27, 1968, p. 21.
Stephen S. Rosenfeld, "Top Soviet Space Designer Worked in a Stalin Prison," Washington Post, June 16, 1966, p. A27.
Leonid Vladimirov, The Russian Space Bluff: The Inside Story of the Soviet Drive to the Moon (New York: The Dial Press, 1971). See also L. Vladimirov, "From Sputnik to Apollo" (in Russian), Posev (September 1969): 47-51.
G. Ozerov, Tupolevskaya sharaga (Beograd: M. Cudina & S. Masic, 1971).
L. L. Kerber, Stalin's Aviation Gulag: A Memoir of Andrei Tupolev and the Purge Era (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996).
These authors produced important works that shed light on Korolev's time in prison. Mark Gallay (1914-1998), the famous Soviet test pilot who Korolev invited to witness Yuriy Gagarin's launch in 1961, described Korolev's time in prison in cryptic terms in his memoirs. See M. K. Gallay, Ispytano v nebe [Testing in the Heavens] (Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1963). In his magisterial work on the history of Stalinism, Roy Medvedev (1925-) briefly mentioned Korolev's incarceration. See his Let History Judge: The Origin and Consequences of Stalinism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972). Famous Soviet dissident Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918 2008) wrote about the sharaga camps, albeit in semi-fictional setting, in his famous novel The First Circle (New York: Harper & Row, 1968).
James E. Oberg, "Korolev and Khrushchev and Sputnik," Spaceflight (1978): 144-50. A prior version appeared as "Korolev," Space World (May 1974): 17-24. 50. See Oleg Penkovsky, The Penkovsky Papers: The Russian Who Spied for the West (New York: Doubleday, 1966).
Oberg, Red Star in Orbit, p. 118.
G. Petrovich, ed., Malen'kaya entsiklopediya: kosmonavtika [Little Encyclopedia: Cosmonautics] (Moscow: Sovetskaya entsiklopediya, 1968).
"Soviet Space Chiefldentified as Editor of an Encyclopedia," New York Times, March 19, 1971, p. 24.
Theodore Shabad, "Russian Predicts 3-Engine Rockets," New York Times, October 16, 1972, p. II.
For details, see Asif A. Siddiqi, "Privatising memory: the Soviet space programme through museums and memoirs" in Showcasing Space, eds. Michael Collins and Douglas Millard (London: The Science Museum, 2004), pp. 98-115.
Nik:ita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1974), pp. 46-47.
Nik:ita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1990), p. 186.
Designers whose names were revealed during their lifetimes included K. D. Bushuyev, K. P. Feoktistov, N. A. Pilyugin, and B. V. Raushenbakh,
Theodore Shabad, "Soviet Shift Hints New Space Chief," New York Times, June 26, 1966, p. 3.
Kisun'ko was the chief designer of the early Soviet anti-ballistic missile systems (System A and A-35M) at the giant KB-1 organization based in Moscow.
"Mikhail Yangel, Soviet Space Aide," New York Times, October 27, 1971, p. 50.
Daniloff, The Kremlin and the Cosmos.
Theodore Shabad, "Russians Indicate Rocket Specialist Heads Space Effort," New York Times, July 14, 1974, p. 6.
"Akademik Vladimir Nikolayevich Chelomey," Pravda, December 12, 1984, p. 3.
These included the following major pieces: V. Rodikov, "General'nyy konstruktor" ["General Designer"] in Zagadki zvezdnykh ostrovov: kniga chetvertaya [Mysteries of Starry Islands: Book Four], ed., F. S. Alymov (Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1987), pp. 53-100; and V. Rodikov, "Akademik Chelomey i ego vremya" ["Academician Chelomey and His Time"] in Zagadkizvezdnykh ostrovov: kniga pyataya [Mysteries of Starry Islands: Book Five] ed., F. S. Alymov (Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1989), pp. 4-36. Rodikov also wrote several other articles on Chelomey in 1985-1989 in magazines such as Kry/'ya rodiny (Wings of the Motherland), Aviatsiya i kosmonavtika (Aviation and Cosmonautics), and Tekhnika-molodezhi (Technology for Youth).
Sergei N. Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower (University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000). An earlier shorter memoir about his father had appeared in 1990: Sergei Khrushchev, Khrushchev on Khrushchev: An Inside Account of the Man and His Era (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1990).
Vladimir Polyachenko, "Chelomey and Korolev- Cooperation and Competition," Spaceflight 53 (July 2011): 271-277.
For my first stab at this history, see "The Almaz Space Station Complex: A History, 1964-1992." Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 54 (2001): 389- 416 and 55 (2002): 35-67.
CIA, Soviet Military Capabilities and Intentions in Space, National Intelligence Estimate, NIB 11-1-80, original classification Top Secret, August 6, 1980, p. 20.
These books included: (co-authored with R. F. Appazov), Ballistika upravliayemykh raket da/'nego deystviya [Ballistics of Guided Long-Range Missiles] (Moscow: Nauka, 1966); Vvedeniye v mashinoye proyektirovaniye /etate/'nykh apparatov [Introduction to Machine Design of Flying Vehicles] (Moscow, 1978); A/goritmy diagnostiki tep/ovykh nagruzok /etate/'nykh apparatov [Diagnostic Algorithms of Thermal Stresses on Flying Vehicles] (Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye, 1983).
For the originals, see: M. Vasil'yev, ed., Shagi k zvezdam (Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1972); M. P. Vasil'yev, 'Sa/yut' na orbite (Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye, 1973).
M. Vasil'yev, "Sputnik: nachalo kosmicheskoy ery" ["Sputnik: Beginning of the Space Age"], Pravda, April10, 1972. Other articles were published in Izvestiya (December 28, 1972) and Krasnaya zvezda (Aprill2, 1974).
Pierre Dumas, "Un Train Spatial Habite Vers Mars en 1978," La Recherche Spatiale 11 no. 3 (1972): 26.
S. Yu. Protsyuk, "Tekhnichna khronika khto keruye programmeoyu osvoyennya kosmosu v srsr?" ["Technical Chronicle: Who Runs the Programme of Mastering Space in the USSR?"], Ukrainian Engineering News 23 nos. 3-4 (1972): 60-72.
Albert Ducrocq and Martine Castello, Le livre d'or de Ia science (Paris: Solar, 1977).
Victor Yevsikov, Re-entry Technology and the Soviet Space Programme: Some Personal Observations (Falls Church, Va.: Delphic Associates, 1982).
C. Wachtel, "The Chief Designers of the Soviet Space Programme," Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 38 (1985): 561-563.
Others on the "editorial council" included Mstislav Keldysh, Boris Raushenbakh, Georgiy Tyulin, Vladimir Barmin, Valentin Glushko, Nikolay Pilyugin, Konstantin Bushuyev, K. Kolesnikov, Yuriy Mozzhorin, Sergey Okhapkin,Konstantin Feoktistov, A. Yeremenko, and V. Sokol'skiy. The chief editorcompiler was (later) famous space historian Georgiy Vetrov. SeeM. V. Keldysh, ed., Tvorcheskoye naslediya akademika Sergeya Pavlovicha Koroleva; izbrannyye trudy i dokumenty [The Creative Legacy of Sergei Pavlovich Korolev: Selected Works and Documents] (Moscow: Nauka, 1980).
See for example "Nashi interv'yu" ["Our Interview"], Zemlya i vselennaya no. 6 (1987): 2-5; Yevgeny Andrianov, "The First Sputnik," New Times, October 12, 1987, pp. 24-25.
A. Tarasov, "Polety vo snye i nauavu" [Flights in Dreams and Reality], Pravda, October 20, 1989, p. 4.
V. P. Mishin, "Pochemu my ne sletali na Lunu" [Why Didn't We Fly to the Moon?], Znaniye: kosmonavtika, astronomiya no. 12 (1990): 3-43.
Russian Space History, Sale 6516 (New York: Sotheby's, 1993); John Noble Wilford, "Space Papers Going on Sale," New York Times, December 5, 1993, p. 36.
These included: "Zenit - The First Soviet Photo-Reconnaissance Satellites," Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 50 (1997): 441-448; "ZENIT: Corona's Soviet Counterpart," in Robert A. McDonald, ed., Corona: Between the Sun & The Earth: The First NRO Reconnaissance Eye in Space (Bethesda, MD: The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 1997), pp. 85-107; The Soviet Response to CORONA," in Dwayne A. Day, John M. ogsdon, and Brian Latell, eds., Eye in the Sky: The Story of the CORONA Spy Satellites (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998), pp. 157-170; and "Black 'Amber': Russian Yantar-Class Optical Reconnaissance Satellites," Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 51 (1998): 309-320.
"Peter A. Gorin Obituary," http://www.legacy.comfobituariesfdailypress/obituary. aspx?page=lifestory&pid= 123084975. (accessed May 31, 2012).
"Delegatsiya NASA v MAl" [Delegation from NASA at MAl], http:// www.mai.rufeventsfnewsfdetail.php?ELEMENT_ID = 28466. (accessed May 31, 2012).
Christoph Mick, Forschen fur Stalin: Deutsche Fachleute in der sowjetischen Riistungsindustrie 1945 1958 [Research for Stalin: German Experts in the Soviet Defense Industry, 1945-1958] (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 2000); Matthias Uhl, Stalins V-2: Der Technologietransfer tier deutschen Fernlenkwaffentechnik in die UdSSR und der Aujbau tier sowjetischen Raketenindustrie 1945 his 1959 [Stalin's V-2: Technology Transfer of German Long-Range Missile Technology to the USSR and the Establishment of the Soviet Rocket Industry, 1945 to 1959] (Bonn: Bernard & Graefe-Verlag, 2001).
Asif A. Siddiqi, "The Decision To Go to the Moon: The View From the Soviet Union," Spaceflight 40 (May 1998): 177-80 and 40 (June 1998): 227-30.
Asif A. Siddiqi, "A Secret Uncovered: The Soviet Decision to Land Cosmonauts on the Moon," Spaceflight 46 (May 2004): 205-13.
Yu. M. Baturin, ed., Sovetskaya kosmicheskaya initsiativa v gosudarstvennykh dokumentakh, 1946-1964 gg. [The Soviet Space Initiative in Government Documents, 1946-19Mj (Moscow: RTSoft, 2008), pp. 269-273
These have been published in 2004-2011 under the general title Rockets and People by the NASA History Office.
Rex Hall and David J. Shayler, The Rocket Men: Vostok & Voskhod, The First Soviet Manned Spaceflights (Chichester, UK: Springer-Praxis, 2001); James Harford, Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997).
Nataliya Koro1eva, Otets: kniga pervaya [Father: Book One] (Moscow: Naula, 2001).
Asif A. Siddiqi, "Cosmic Contradictions: Popular Enthusiasm and Secrecy in the Soviet Space Programme" in Into the Cosmos: Space Exploration and Soviet Culture, eds. James T. Andrews and Asif A. Siddiqi (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011), pp. 47-76.
These documents are stored in RGAE, fond [fund] 4372, opis' [inventory] 81, delo [file]1239, listov [pages] 44-48.
G. S. Vetrov and B. V. Raushenbakh, eds., S. P. Korolev i ego delo: svet i teni v istorii kosmonavtiki: izbrannyye trudy i dokumenty [S. P. Korolev and His Affairs: Light and Shadow in the History of Cosmonautics: Selected Works and Documents] (Moscow: Nauka, 1998)
M. V. Tarasenko, Voennyye aspekty Sovetskoi kosmonavtiki [Military Aspects of Soviet Cosmonautics] (Moscow: Niko1, 1992)
V.I. Ivkin and G. A. Sukhina, eds., Zadacha osoboy gosudarstvennoy vazhnosti: iz istorii sozdaniya raketno-yadernogo oruzhiya i raketnykh voysk strategicheskogo naznacheniya ( 1945-1959 gg.): sbornik dokumentov [A Goal of Special State Importance: From the History of the Creation of Rocket and Nuclear Armaments and the Strategic Rocket Forces ( 1945-1958)] (Moscow: Rosspen, 2010)
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Siddiqi, A.A. (2013). People and archives. In: Phelan, D. (eds) Cold War Space Sleuths. Springer Praxis Books(). Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3052-0_9
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