Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Eta Carinae and the Supernova Impostors pp 43–65Cite as

The Central Star: Instability and Recovery

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Astrophysics and Space Science Library ((ASSL,volume 384))

Abstract

Many clues to η Carinae’s structure and physics can be found in its observed behavioral timescales, ranging from a few days to a few centuries. Here these are reviewed in three categories: the 5.5-year spectroscopic cycle with its spectroscopic events, the Great Eruption of 1830–1860, and the subsequent unsteady recovery. Unfortunately, the underlying thread shared by these stories is a scarcity of theoretical effort. Eta Car may or may not be an exception to general rules; but either way, as the most observable very massive star, it reveals major gaps in existing theory. Recent observers have found many unexpected, highly suggestive discoveries in this topic, including phenomena that cannot be observed in any other known object. A variety of specific unsolved theoretical problems are noted here.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. M. Akashi, A. Kashi, N. Soker, Accretion of dense clumsps in the periastron passage of η Carinae. arXiv:1106.2438

    Google Scholar 

  2. E. Artigau, J.C. Martin, R.M. Humphreys et al., Penetrating the Homunculus – Near-infrared adaptive optics images of η Carinae. Astr. J. 141, 202(2011)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  3. J.M. Blondin, I.R. Stevens, T.R. Kallman, Enhanced winds and tidal streams in massive X-ray binaries. Ap. J. 371, 684–695 (1991)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  4. A. Damineli, The 5.52 year cycle of η Carinae. Ap. J. Lett. 460, L49–L52 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  5. A. Damineli, O. Stahl, B. Wolf, A. Kaufer, F.J. Jablonski, The historical evidence for the 5.52-year cycle. in Eta Carinae at the Millennium, ed. by J.A. Morse, R.M. Humphreys, A. Damineli. ASP Conference Series, vol. 179 (ASP, San Francisco, 1999), pp. 221–226

    Google Scholar 

  6. A. Damineli, D.J. Hillier, M.F. Corcoran et al., The periodicity of the η Carinae events. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 384, 1649–1656 (2008)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  7. K. Davidson, The relation between apparent temperature and mass-loss rate in hypergiant eruptions. Ap. J. 317, 760–764 (1987)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  8. K. Davidson, Plinian eruptions a la η Carinae. in Physics of Luminous Blue Variables, ed. by K. Davidson, A.F.J. Moffat, H.J.G.L.M. Lamers. IAU Colloq. vol. 113 (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1989), pp. 101–107

    Google Scholar 

  9. K. Davidson, Why the binary hypothesis isn’t a panacea. in Eta Carinae at the Millennium, ed. by J.A. Morse, R.M. Humphreys, A. Damineli. ASP Conference Series, vol. 179 (ASP, San Francisco, 1999), pp. 304–315

    Google Scholar 

  10. K. Davidson, Chandra meets η Carinae. in The High Energy Universe at Sharp Focus, ed. by E.M. Schlegel, S.D. Vrtilek. ASP Conference Series, vol. 262 (ASP, San Francisco, 2002), pp. 267–274

    Google Scholar 

  11. K. Davidson, The physical nature of η Carinae. in The Fate of the Most Massive Stars, ed. by R.M. Humphreys, K.Z. Stanek. ASP Conference Series, vol. 332 (ASP, San Francisco, 2005), pp. 101–109

    Google Scholar 

  12. K. Davidson, R.M. Humphreys, Eta Carinae and its environment. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 35, 1–32 (1997)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  13. K. Davidson, K. Davidson, R.J. Dufour, N.R. Walborn, T.R. Gull, Ultraviolet and visual wavelength spectroscopy of gas around η Carinae. Ap. J. 305, 867–879 (1986)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  14. K. Davidson, D. Ebbets, G. Weigelt et al., HST/FOS spectroscopy of η Carinae: the star itself, and ejecta within 0.3 arcsec. Astr. J. 109, 1784–1796 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  15. K. Davidson, K. Ishibashi, M.F. Corcoran, The relationship between two periodicities observed in η Carinae. New Astr. 3, 241–245 (1998)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  16. Davidson, K., Smith, N., Gull, T.R., Ishibashi, K., Hillier, DJ.: The shape an orientation of the Homunculus nebula based on spectroscopic velocities. Astr. J. 121, 1569–1577 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  17. R.J. Dufour, K. Davidson, N.R. Walborn, Kinematics of the η Car condensations. Bull. Am. Astr. Soc. 17, 884 (1985)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  18. R.J. Dufour, T.W. Glover, J.J. Hester, D.G. Currie, D. van Orsow, D.K. Walter, HST-FOS UV-optical spectra of ejecta from η Carinae. in Eta Carinae at the Millennium, ed. by J.A. Morse, R.M. Humphreys, A. Damineli. ASP Conference Series, vol. 179 (ASP, San Francisco, 1999), pp. 134–143

    Google Scholar 

  19. W.J. Duschl, K.-H. Hofmann, F. Rigaut, G. Weigelt Morphology and kinematics of η Carinae. Rev. Mex. Astr. Astrof. Ser. Conf. 2, 17–22 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  20. V.V. Dwarkadas, S.P. Owocki, Radiatively driven winds and the shaping of bipolar luminous blue variable nebulae. Ap. J. 581, 1337–1343 (2002)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  21. M. Feast, P. Whitelock, F. Marang, Variability of η Carinae – III. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 322, 741–748 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  22. D.J. Frew, The historical record of η Carinae, I. The visual light curve, 1595–2000. J. Astr. Data 10(6), 1–76 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  23. A.W. Fullerton, D.L. Massa, R.K. Prinja, The discordance of mass-loss estimates for Galactic O-type stars. Ap. J. 637, 1025–1039 (2006)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  24. A. Gal-Yam, D.C. Leonard, A massive hypergiant star as the progenitor of SN 2005gl. Nature 458, 865–867 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  25. W. Glatzel, On the origin of strange modes and the mechanism of related instabilities. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 271, 66–74 (1994)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  26. W. Glatzel, Instabilities in the most massive evolved stars. in The Fate of the Most Massive Stars, ed. by R.M. Humphreys, K.Z. Stanek. ASP Conference Series, vol. 332 (ASP, San Francisco, 2005), pp. 22–32

    Google Scholar 

  27. W. Glatzel, M. Kiriakidis, Stability of massive stars and the Humphreys/Davidson limit. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 263, 375–384 (1993)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  28. T.W. Glover, R.J. Dufour, J.J. Hester et al., HST FOS spectroscopy of η Carinae’s northeast jet. Rev. Mex. Astr. Astrof. Ser. Conf. 7, 158–162 (1998)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  29. J.A. Guzik, A.N. Cox, K.M. Despain, Pulsation-driven outflows in luminous blue variables. in Eta Carinae at the Millennium, ed. by J.A. Morse, R.M. Humphreys, A. Damineli. ASP Conference Series, vol. 179 (ASP, San Francisco, 1999) pp. 347–353

    Google Scholar 

  30. J.F.W. Herschel, Results of Astronomical Observations Made in the Years 1834–1838, at the Cape of Good Hope (Smith, Elder, & Co., London, 1847)

    Google Scholar 

  31. D.J. Hillier, K. Davidson, K. Ishibashi, T.R. Gull, On the nature of the central source in η Carinae. Ap. J. 553, 837–860 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  32. R.M. Humphreys, Eta Carinae – the observational story, 1600 to 2004. in The Fate of the Most Massive Stars, ed. by R.M. Humphreys, K.Z. Stanek. ASP Conference Series, vol. 332 (ASP, San Francisco, 2005), pp. 14–21

    Google Scholar 

  33. R.M. Humphreys, K. Davidson, Studies of luminous stars in nearby galaxies. III – comments on the evolution of the most massive stars in the milky way and the large magellanic cloud. Ap. J. 232, 409–420 (1979)

    Google Scholar 

  34. R.M. Humphreys, K. Davidson, The luminous blue variables: astrophysical geysers. Publ. Astr. Soc. Pac. 106, 1025–1051 (1994)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  35. R.M. Humphreys, K. Davidson, N. Smith, Eta Carinae’s second eruption and the light curves of the η Carinae variables. Publ. Astr. Soc. Pac. 111, 1124–1131 (1999)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  36. R.M. Humphreys, K. Davidson, M. Koppelman, The early spectra of η Carinae 1892 to 1941 and the onset of its high excitation emission spectrum. Astr. J. 135, 1249–1263 (2008)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  37. K. Ishibashi, M.F. Corcoran, K. Davidson, S.A. Drake, J.H. Swank, R. Petre, Resolving X-ray temporal variations in η Carinae. in Eta Carinae at the Millennium, ed. by J.A. Morse, R.M. Humphreys, A. Damineli. ASP Conference Series, vol. 179 (ASP, San Francisco, 1999), pp. 266–274

    Google Scholar 

  38. K. Ishibashi, M.F. Corcoran, K. Davidson, J.H. Swank, R. Petre, S.A. Drake, A. Damineli, S. White, Recurrent X-ray emission variations of η Carinae and the binary hypothesis. Ap. J. 524, 983–987 (1999)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  39. K. Ishibashi, T.R. Gull, K. Davidson, Discovery of a little homunculus within the homunculus nebula of η Carinae. Astr. J. 125, 3222–3236 (2003)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  40. P.C.A. Jensen, in Die Kosmologie der Babylonier (Trübner, Strassburg, 1890), pp. 24–28

    Google Scholar 

  41. A. Kashi, N. Soker, Possible implications of mass accretion in η Carinae. New Astr. 14, 11–24 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  42. A. Kashi, N. Soker, Explaining the early exit of η Carinae from its 2009 X-ray minimum with the accretion model. Ap. J. 701, L59–L62 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  43. A. Kashi, N. Soker, Using X-ray interactions to explore the binary interaction in η Carinae. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 397, 1426–1434 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  44. A. Kashi, N. Soker, Periastron passage triggering of the 19th century eruptions of η Carinae. Ap. J. 723, 602–611 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  45. H.J.G. Lamers, A.W.A. Pauldrach, The formation of outflowing disks around early-type stars by bi-stable radiation driven winds. Astr. Astrophys. 244, L5–L8 (1991)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  46. M. Livio, J.E. Pringle, Can η Carinae be a triple system? Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 295, L59–L60 (1998)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  47. A. Maeder, G. Meynet, The evolution of rotating stars. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 38, 143–190 (2000)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  48. A. Maeder, G. Meynet, Stellar evolution with rotation. Astr. Astrophys. 361, 159–166 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  49. A. Maeder, G. Meynet, Mass loss and the evolution of massive stars. in Mass Loss from Stars and the Evolution of Stellar Clusters, ed. by A. de Koter, L. Smith, R. Waters. ASP Conference Series, vol. 388 (ASP, San Francisco, 2008), pp. 3–19.

    Google Scholar 

  50. A. Maeder, G. Meynet, R. Hirschi, Evolution of the most massive stars. in The Fate of the Most Massive Stars, ed. by R.M. Humphreys, K.Z. Stanek. ASP Conference Series, vol. 332 (ASP, San Francisco, 2005), pp. 3–12

    Google Scholar 

  51. J.C. Martin, K. Davidson, R.M. Humphreys, D.J. Hillier, K. Ishibashi, On the He II emission in η Carinae and the origin of its spectroscopic events. Ap. J. 640, 474–490 (2006)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  52. J.C. Martin, K. Davidson, M.D. Koppelman, The chrysalis opens? Photometry from the HST η Carinae treasury project, 2002–2006. Astr. J. 132, 2717–2728 (2006)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  53. J.C. Martin, K. Davidson, R.M. Humphreys, A. Mehner, Mid-cycle changes in η Carinae. Astr. J. 139, 2056–2065 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  54. F. Martins, D. Schaerer, D.J. Hillier, A new calibration of stellar parameters of Galactic O stars. Astr. Astrophys. 436, 1049–1065 (2005)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  55. J. Meaburn, G. Gehring, J.R. Walsh et al., An episodic jet from η Carinae. Astr. Astrophys. 276, L21–L24 (1993)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  56. J. Meaburn, P. Boumis, J.R. Walsh et al., Highly supersonic motions within the outer features of the η Carinae nebulosity. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 282, 1313–1320 (1996)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  57. A. Mehner, K. Davidson, G.J. Ferland, R.M. Humphreys, High-excitation emission lines near η Carinae, and its likely companion star. Ap. J. 710, 729–742 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  58. A. Mehner, K. Davidson, G.J. Ferland, A sea change in η Carinae. Ap. J. Lett. 717, L22–L25 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  59. A. Mehner, K. Davidson, G.J. Ferland, N II λλ5668-5712, a new class of spectral features in η Carinae. Ap. J. 737, 70–XXX (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  60. A. Mehner, K. Davidson, J.C. Martin, R.M. Humphreys, I. Kazunori, G.J. Ferland, Critical differences and clues in η Car’s 2009 event. Ap. J. 740, 2 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. G. Meynet, A. Maeder, G. Schaller, D. Schaerer, C. Charbonnel, Grids of massive stars with high mass loss rates. Astr. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser. 103, 97–105 (1994)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  62. G. Michanowsky, The Once and Future Star: The Mysterious Vela X Supernova and the Origin of Civilizations (Barnes and Noble, New York, 1979)

    Google Scholar 

  63. J.A. Morse, K. Davidson, J. Bally et al., Hubble space telescope wide field planetary camera observations of η Carinae. Astron. J. 116, 2443–2461 (1998) [See also erratum with better images, Astr. J. 117, 1949–1955 (1999).]

    Google Scholar 

  64. J.A. Morse, J.R. Kellogg, J. Bally et al., Hubble space telescope proper-motion measurements of the η Carinae nebula. Ap. J. 548, L207–L211 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  65. S. Owocki, K.G. Gayley, The physics of stellar winds near the Eddington Limit. in Luminous Blue Variables: Massive Stars in Transition, ed. by A. Nota, H.J.G.L.M. Lamers. ASP Conference Series, vol. 120 (ASP, San Francisco, 1997), pp. 121–127

    Google Scholar 

  66. E.R. Parkin, J.M. Pittard, M.F. Corcoran, K. Hamaguchi, I.R. Stevens, 3D modeling of the colliding winds in η Carinae – evidence for radiative inhibition. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 394 1758–1774 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  67. A. Pastorello, S.J. Smartt, S. Mattila et al., A giant outburst two years before the core collapse of a massive star. Nature 447, 829–832 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  68. A.W.A. Pauldrach, J. Puls, Radiation-driven winds of hot stars. VIII – The bistable wind of P Cygni. Astr. Astrophys. 237, 409–424 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  69. J.M. Pittard, M.F. Corcoran, In hot pursuit of the hidden companion of η Carinae. Astr. Astrophys. 383, 636–647 (2002)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  70. J. Puls, J.S. Vink, F. Najarro, Mass loss from hot massive stars. Astr. Astrophys. Rev. 16, 209–325 (2008)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  71. A. Rest et al., Light echoes reveal an unexpectedly cool η Carinae during its 19th-century Great Eruption. Nature, in press (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  72. N.J. Shaviv, The porous atmosphere of η Carinae. Ap. J. 532, L137–K140 (2000)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  73. N. Smith, The structure of the homunculus. I. Shape and latitude dependence from H2 and [Fe II] velocity maps of η Carinae. Ap. J. 644, 1151–1163 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  74. N. Smith, A blast wave from the 1843 eruption of η Carinae. Nature 455, 201–203 (2008)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  75. N. Smith, G.J. Ferland, The Structure of the homunculus. II. Modeling the physical conditions in η Carinae’s molecular shell. Ap.J. 655, 911–919 (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  76. N. Smith, D.J. Frew, A revised light curve of η Carinae and the timing of close periastron encounters. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 415, 2009–2019 (2011)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  77. N. Smith, S.P. Owocki, On the role of continuum-driven eruptions in the evolution of very massive stars and Population III stars. Ap. J. 645, L45–L48 (2006)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  78. N. Smith, K. Davidson, T.R. Gull, K. Ishibashi, D.J. Hillier, Latitude-dependent effects in the stellar wind of η Carinae. Ap. J. 586, 432–450 (2003)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  79. N. Smith, R.D. Gehrz, P.M. Hinz et al., Mass and kinetic energy of the Homunculus nebulae around η Carinae. Astr. J. 125, 1458–1466 (2003)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  80. N. Soker, The departure of η Carinae from axisymmetry and the binary hypothesis. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 325, 584–588 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  81. N. Soker, Accretion-indiced collimated fast wind model for η Carinae. Ap. J. 597, 513–517 (2003)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  82. N. Soker, The binarity of η Carinae and its similarity to related astrophysical objects. Ap. J. 619, 1064–1071 (2005)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  83. N. Soker, Accretion onto the companion of η Carinae during the spectroscopic event. IV. The disappearance of highly ionized lines. Ap. J. 661, 482–489 (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  84. N. Soker, E. Behar, Accretion onto the companion of η Carinae during the spectroscopic event. III. The He II λ4686 line. Ap. J. 652, 1563–1571 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  85. I.R. Stevens, T.R. Kallman, X-ray illuminated stellar winds – Ionization effects in the radiative driving of stellar winds in massive X-ray binary systems. Ap. J. 365, 321–331 (1990)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  86. I.R. Stevens, J.M. Pittard, Eta Carinae: a colliding wind binary? in Eta Carinae at the Millennium, ed. by J.A. Morse, R.M. Humphreys, A. Damineli. ASP Conference Series, vol. 179 (ASP, San Francisco, 1999), pp. 295–303

    Google Scholar 

  87. I.R. Stevens, J.M. Blondin, A.M.T. Pollock, Colliding winds from early-type stars in binary systems. Ap. J. 386, 265–287 (1992)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  88. N.R. Walborn, The stellar content of the Carina Nebula. Rev. Mex. Astr. Astrof. Ser. Conf. 2, 51–55 (1995)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  89. N.R. Walborn, M.H. Liller, The earliest spectroscopic observations of η Carinae and its interaction with the Carina Nebula. Ap. J. 211, 181–183 (1977)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  90. N.R. Walborn, B.M. Blanco, A.D. Thackeray, Proper motions in the outer shell of η Carinae. Ap. J. 219, 498–503 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  91. K. Weis, W.J. Duschl, Y.-H. Chu, The nature of strings in the nebula around η Carinae. Astr. Astrophys. 349, 467–474 (1999)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  92. K. Weis, W.J. Duschl, D.J. Bomans, High velocity structures in, and the X-ray emission from the LBV nebula around η Carinae. Astr. Astrophys. 367, 566–576 (2001)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  93. P.A. Whitelock, M.W. Feast, C. Koen, G. Roberts, B.S. Carter, Variability of η Carinae. Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. 270, 364–372 (1994)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  94. S.E. Woosley, S. Blinnikov, A. Heger, Pulsational pair instability as an explanation for the most luminous supernovae. Nature 450, 390–392 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  95. R. Zanella, B. Wolf, O. Stahl, Spectroscopy of the shell episode of Eta Car (1981–1983). Astr. Astrophys. 137, 79–84 (1984)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  96. T. Zethson, S. Johansson, K. Davidson, R.M. Humphreys, K. Ishibashi, D. Ebbets, Strange velocities in the equatorial ejecta of η Carinae. Astr. Astrophys. 344, 211–220 (1999)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Minnesota Institute for Astrophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Kris Davidson

Authors
  1. Kris Davidson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kris Davidson .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. Astronomy, University of Minnesota, Church Street SE., 116, Minneapolis, 55455, Minnesota, USA

    Kris Davidson

  2. Dept. Astronomy, University of Minnesota, Church Street SE., 116, Minneapolis, 55455, Minnesota, USA

    Roberta M. Humphreys

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Davidson, K. (2012). The Central Star: Instability and Recovery. In: Davidson, K., Humphreys, R. (eds) Eta Carinae and the Supernova Impostors. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol 384. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2275-4_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2275-4_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-2274-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-2275-4

  • eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation