Abstract
HIV is a retrovirus whose genetic material is comprised of RNA. It is a decidedly adaptable virus with properties of high replication rates in association with an RNA copying enzyme—reverse transcriptase—which possesses a relatively high copying error rate, in the order of 1 error or mutation for every 10,000 nucleotides copied. This translates to a single mutation for every viral replication event on average in the setting of a billion viral copies produced daily in an infected individual. As such, the viral quasispecies (the pool of viral variants present at a given time) can and does adapt rapidly to environmental pressures such as the immune response or antiretroviral agents. It should not be surprising, therefore, that as antiretroviral agents have been developed and deployed, mutations in HIV genes associated with ARV resistance have rapidly been detected, underscoring the strategy of multiple agent and multiple class ARV therapy known as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R et al (2004) Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group. N Engl J Med 331(18):1173–1180
Guay LA, Musoke P, Fleming T et al (1999) Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet 354:795–802
Dorenbaum A, Cunningham CK, Gelber RD et al (2003) Two-dose nevirapine and standard antiretroviral therapy to reduce perinatal HIV transmission: a randomized trial. JAMA 288:189–198
Cooper ER, Charurat M, Mofenson LM et al (2002) Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of HIV-1 infected pregnant women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 29:484–494
Chou R, Smits AK, Huffman LH et al (2005) Prenatal screening for HIV: a review of the evidence for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 143:38–54
Huang DD, Bremer JW, Brambilla DJ et al (2005) Model for assessment of proficiency of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 sequencing-based genotypic antiretroviral assays. J Clin Microbiol 43:3963–3970
Halvas EK, Wiegand A, Boltz VF et al (2010) Low frequency nonnucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor-resistant variants contribute to failure of efavirenz-containing regimens in treatment-experienced patients. J Infect Dis 201(5):672–680
Paredes R, Lalama CM, Ribaudo HJ et al (2010) Pre-existing minority drug-resistant HIV-1 variants, adherence, and risk of antiretroviral treatment failure. J Infect Dis 201(5):662–671
Mirochnick M, Thomas T, Capparelli E et al (2009) Antiretroviral concentrations in breast-feeding infants of mothers receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53(3):1170–1176
Spencer L, Neely M, Mordwinkin N et al Intensive PK of zidovudine (AZT), lamivudine (3TC), and atazanavir (ATV) and HIV-1 viral load in breast milk and plasma in HIV+ women receiving HAART Therapy. 16th CROI 2009; Abstract #942
Corbett A, Martinson F, Rezk N et al Antiretroviral drug concentrations in breast milk and breastfeeding infants. 15th CROI 2008; Abstract #648
Kunz A, Frank M, Mugenyi K et al (2009) Persistence of nevirapine in breast milk and plasma of mothers and their children after single-dose administration. J Antimicrob Chemother 63(1):170–177
Corbett A, Martinson F, Rezk N et al Lopinavir/ritonavir concentrations in breast milk and breast-feeding infants. 16th CROI 2009; Abstract #947
Andreotti M, Galluzzo CM, Guidotti G, Germano P, Doro Altan A, Pirillo MF (2009) Comparison of HIV type 1 sequences from plasma, cell-free breast milk, and cell-associated breast milk viral populations in treated and untreated women in Mozambique. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 25
Andreotti M, Guidotti G, Galluzzo CM et al (2007) Resistance mutation patterns in plasma and breast milk of HIV-infected women receiving highly-active antiretroviral therapy for mother-to-child transmission prevention. AIDS 21(17):2360–2362
Salazar-Gonzalez JF, Salazar MG et al (2011) Origin and evolution of HIV-1 in breast milk determined by single genome amplification and sequencing. J Virol 85(6):2751–63, Mar 2011
Neveu D, Viljoen J, Bland RM et al (2011) Cumulative exposure to cell-free HIV in breast milk, rather than feeding pattern per se, identifies postnatally infected infants. Clin Infect Dis 52(6):819–825, 15 Mar 2011
Heath L, Conway S, Jones L et al (2010) Restriction of HIV-1 genotypes in breast milk does not account for the population transmission genetic bottleneck that occurs following transmission. PLoS One 5:1–11
Gray RR, Salemi M, Lowe A et al (2011) Multiple independent lineages of HIV-1 persist in breast milk and plasma. AIDS 25(2):143–152
Gantt S, Carlsson J, Heath L et al (2010) Genetic analyses of HIV-1 env sequences demonstrate limited compartmentalization in breast milk and suggest viral replication within the breast that increases with mastitis. J Virol 84:10812–10819
WHO. Antiretroviral drugs for treating pregnant women and preventing HIV infection in infants. http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/mtct/antiretroviral/en/index.html. Accessed 17 Feb 2011
Chung MH, Kiarie JN, Richardson BA et al (2007) Independent effects of nevirapine prophylaxis and HIV-1 RNA suppression in breast milk on early perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 46:472–478
Aizire J, Mudiope P, Matovu F et al (2010) Impact of systemic and mucosal nevirapine levels on serial HIV RNA levels in maternal plasma and breast milk after perinatal single dose nevirapine. 17th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. http://www.retroconference.org/2010/Abstracts/37126.htm. Accessed 17 Feb 2011
Lee EJ, Kantor R, Zijenah L et al (2005) Breast milk shedding of drug resistant HIV-1 subtype C in women exposed to single-dose nevirapine. JID 192:1260–1264
Chasela CS, Hudgens MG, Jamieson DJ et al (2010) Maternal or infant antiretroviral drugs to reduce HIV-1 transmission. N Engl J Med 362(24):2271–2281
Thomas TK, Masaba R, Borkowf CB et al and KiBS Study Team (2011) Triple-antiretroviral prophylaxis to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission through breastfeeding–the Kisumu Breastfeeding Study, Kenya: a clinical trial. PLoS Med 8(3):e1001015. Epub 2011 Mar 29
Kilewo C, Karlsson K, Ngarina M et al (2009) Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV-1 through breastfeeding by treating mothers with triple antiretroviral therapy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: The Mitra Plus Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 52:406–416
Palombi L, Marazzi MC, Voetberg A, Magid NA, The DREAM Program prevention of mother to child transmission team (2007) Treatment acceleration program and the experience of the DREAM program in prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV. AIDS 21(Suppl 4):S65–S71
Shapiro RL, Hughes MD, Ogwu A et al (2010) Antiretroviral regimens in pregnancy and breast-feeding in Botswana. N Engl J Med 362(24):2282–2294, 17 June 2010
Kesho Bora Study Group (2011) Triple antiretroviral compared with zidovudine and single-dose nevirapine prophylaxis during pregnancy and breastfeeding for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 (Kesho Bora study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. published online 14 Jan 2011, doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70288-7
Bedri A, Gudetta B, Isehak A et al (2008) Extended-dose nevirapine to 6 weeks of age for infants to prevent HIV transmission via breastfeeding in Ethiopia, India, and Uganda: an analysis of three randomized controlled trials. Lancet 372:300–313
Kumwenda NI, Hoover DR, Jamieson D et al (2008) Extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to reduce breast milk HIV-1 transmission. N Engl J Med 359:119–129
Kilewo C, Karlsson K, Massawe A et al (2008) Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 through breast-feeding by treating infants prophylactically with lamivudine in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: the Mitra study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 48:315–323
Mirochnick M, Thomas T, Capparelli E et al (2009) Antiretroviral concentrations in breast-feeding infants of mothers receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 53:1170–1176
Lehman DA, Chung MH, John-Stewart GC et al (2008) HIV-1 persists in breast milk cells despite antiretroviral treatment to prevent mother-to-child transmission. AIDS 22:1475–1485
Rossenkhan R, Ndung’u T, Sebunya TK et al (2009) Temporal reduction of HIV type 1 viral load in breast milk by single dose nevirapine during prevention of MTCT. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 25:1261–1264
Hudelson SE, McConnell MS, Bagenda D et al (2010) Emergence and persistence of nevirapine resistance in breast milk after single-dose nevirapine administration. AIDS 24:557–561
Andreotti M, Guidotti G, Galluzzo CM et al (2007) Resistance mutation patterns in plasma and breast milk of HIV-infected women receiving highly-active antiretroviral therapy for mother-to-child transmission prevention. AIDS 21(17):2360–2362, 12 Nov 2007
Andreotti M, Galluzzo CM, Guidotti G et al (2009) Comparison of HIV type 1 sequences from plasma, cell-free breast milk, and cell-associated breast milk viral populations in treated and untreated women in Mozambique. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 25(7):707–711, Jul 2009
Shapiro RL, Ndung’u T, Lockman S et al (2005) Highly active antiretroviral therapy started during pregnancy or postpartum suppresses HIV-1 RNA, but not DNA, in breast milk. J Infect Dis 192:713–719
Bulterys M, Weidle PJ, Abrams EJ, Fowler MG (2005) Combination antiretroviral therapy in African nursing mothers and drug exposure in their infants: new pharmokinetic and virologic findings. J Infect Dis 192:709–712
Lehman DA, Chung MH, John-Stewart GC et al (2008) HIV-1 persists in breast milk cells despite antiretroviral treatment to prevent mother-to-child transmission. AIDS 22:1475–1485
Rousseau CM, Nduati RW, Richardson BA et al (2004) Association of levels of HIV-1-infected breast milk cells and risk of mother-to-child transmission. J Infect Dis 190:1880–1888
Lee EJ, Kantor R, Zijenah L et al (2005) Breast milk shedding of drug resistant HIV-1 subtype C in women exposed to single-dose nevirapine. JID 192:1260–1264
Hudelson SE, McConnell MS, Bagenda D et al (2010) Emergence and persistence of nevirapine resistance in breast milk after single-dose nevirapine administration. AIDS 24:557–561
Giuliano M, Guidotti G, Andreotti M et al (2007) Resistance mutation patterns in plasma and breast milk of HIV-infected women receiving HAART for PMTCT: a study within the DREAM program. Abstract 135; 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, 2007
Andreotti M, Guidotti G, Galluzzo CM et al (2007) Resistance mutation patterns in plasma and breast milk of HIV-infected women receiving highly-active antiretroviral therapy for mother-to-child transmission prevention. AIDS 21:2360–2361
Persaud D, Bedri A, Ziemniak C et al and the Ethiopian SWEN Study Team (2011) Slower clearance of nevirapine resistant virus in infants failing extended nevirapine prophylaxis for prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 27(8):823–829. Epub 2011 Feb 25, Aug 2011
Moorthy A, Gupta A, Bhosale R et al (2009) Nevirapine resistance and breast milk HIV transmission: effects of single and extended-dose nevirapine prophylaxis in subtype C HIV-infected infants. PLoS One 4:e4096
Lidstrom J, Guay L, Musoke P et al (2010) Multi-class drug resistance arises frequently in HIV-infected breastfeeding infants whose mothers initiate HAART post-partum. Abstract 920; 17th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, 2010
Thomas R, Masaba R, Ndivo R, et al. Kisumu breastfeeding study team (2008) Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 among breastfeeding mothers using HAART: the Kisumu breastfeeding study, Kisumu, Kenya 2003–2007 (45aLB). 15th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, 2008, Boston, MA
Zeh C, Weidle PJ, Nafisa L et al (2011) HIV-1 drug resistance emergence among breastfeeding infants born to ÂHIV-infected mothers during a single-arm trial of triple-antiretroviral prophylaxis for prevention of mother-to-child transmission: a secondary analysis. PLoS Med. 8(3):e1000430. Epub 2011 Mar 29, Mar 2011
WHO. Guidelines on HIV and infant feeding 2010. http://www.who.int/child_adolescent_health/documents/9789241599535/en/index.html. Accessed 17 Feb 2011
Mofenson L (2009) Prevention of breast milk transmission of HIV: the time is now. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 52:305–308
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
McConnell, M.S., Palumbo, P. (2012). HIV-1 Resistance to Antiretroviral Agents: Relevance to Mothers and Infants in the Breastfeeding Setting. In: Kourtis, A., Bulterys, M. (eds) Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) and Breastfeeding. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 743. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2251-8_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2251-8_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-2250-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-2251-8
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)