Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Language, Learning, and Identity: Problematizing the Education for Tibetans

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Social Issues in China

Abstract

In almost every society, underachievement is a common problem in underprivileged social groups. This underachievement tends to be normalized and attributed to an intrinsic weakness of the group. But what are the fundamental reasons for the gap between minority and majority groups in academic studies? To what degree are the socially and economically marginalized people liberated by formal education? This chapter attempts to understand these major questions in the case of Tibetan students by utilizing linguistic and psychological lens. It argues against several prevalent assumptions about formal education for Tibetans and addresses educational issues such as language studies, medium of instruction, bilingual education, preferential educational policies, civilizing mission of education, and self-esteem.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Xinhuanet is hosted by Xinhua News Agency, the official press agency of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). It is considered one of the most important official Web sites of the PRC.

  2. 2.

    The three main Tibetan areas (Chlkha Sum in Tibetan) include Eastern (Kham), Northeastern (Amdo), and Central (U-Tsang) areas. The TAR only includes U-Tsang and some part of Kham area (Giles and Tezin 2005; Feigon 1996).

  3. 3.

    I worked as an Education Project Officer within Save the Children Tibet Program from July 2007 to August 2011. During that period, I visited numerous rural schools in Lhasa valley areas (including seven counties and one district), and Lhoka and Ngachu prefectures of the TAR.

  4. 4.

    This information was collected through informal telephone interviews with seven people who work for seven different County Education Bureaus of Lhasa, and six teachers from three different counties and one district of Lhasa.

  5. 5.

    This is a Chinese Government preferential educational policy in the TAR. Under this policy, each year top Tibetan students are selected to receive their education (from middle school to university) in major cities in mainland China. It has been effective since 1985 (Postiglione et al. 2007).

  6. 6.

    Although the notion of semilingualism has been criticized by many scholars for its negative impacts to the language minorities (Baker 2011), I use it here merely as a way to describe the situation of language acquisition of Tibetan students.

References

  • Abazi, H. (2010). Reading fluency measurements in EFA FTI partner countries: Outcomes and improvement prospects. Washington, DC: The Education for All Fast Track Initiative Secretariats.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apple, W. M. (2006). Educating the “Rightist” way: Markets, standards, God and inequality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apple, W. M., & Christian-Smith, L. K. (Eds.). (1991). The politics of the textbook. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, C. (2011). Foundation of bilingual education and bilingualism. Toronto, ON: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, C. (2005). Learning to love the motherland: Educating Tibetans in China. Journal of Moral Education, 34(4), 433–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, C. (2009). Designing effective schooling in multilingual contexts: Going beyond bilingual models. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas, R. Phillipson, A. K. Mohanty, & M. Panda (Eds.), Social justice through multilingual education (pp. 63–102). Toronto, ON: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, Yanyan, & Dai, Qingxia. (2007). Typology of bilingualism and bilingual education in Chinese minority nationality region. In A. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China: Practice, policies and concepts (pp. 75–93). Toronto, ON: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clothey, R. (2005). China’s policies for minority nationalities in higher education: Negotiating national values and ethnic identities. Comparative Education Review, 49(3), 389–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cobbey, H. (2007). Challenges and prospects of minority bilingual education in China—an analysis of four projects. In A. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China: Practice, policies and concepts (pp. 182–199). Toronto, ON: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collier, V. P., & Thomas, W. P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students’ long-term academic achievement. Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power and Pedagogy: bilingual children in the crossfire. Toronto, ON: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • EQUIP (Education Quality Improvement Program). (2008). Opportunity to learn: A high impact strategy for improving educational outcomes in developing countries. USAID. Retrieved April 25, 2013, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED505686.pdf

  • Feigon, L. (1996). Demystifying Tibet: Unlocking the secrets of the land of the snows. Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furstenau, S. (2002). Language and Power: Demands on education. European Educational Research Journal, 1(3), 604–614.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giles, H., & Tezin, D. (2005). Cultural identify in Tibetan diaspora. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 26(2), 138–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, K., & Sleeter, C. (2011). Doing multicultural education for achievement and equity (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooks, B. (2003). Teaching Community: A pedagogy of hope. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jing, Lin. (1997). Policies and practices of bilingual education for the minorities in China. Journal of Multicultural and Multicultural Development, 18(3), 193–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lall, M., & Vickers, E. (Eds.). (2009). Education as a political tool in Asia. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longwe, S. H. (1998). Education for women’s empowerment or schooling for women’s subordination. Gender and Development, 6(2), 19–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, Rong. (2011). Xizang shehui fazhan yu shuangyu jiaoyu [social development and bilingual education in Tibet]. China Tibetology. Retrieved July 20, 2012, from http://www.tibet.cn/zxyj/xzsm/sr/201108/t20110803_1113539.htm

  • McLeod, B. (1994). Language and Learning: Educating linguistically diverse students. Albany, NY: State University of New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merino, B. J., & Ramirez, J. D. (1990). Classroom talk in English immersion, early-exit and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs. In R. Jackbson & C. Taltis (Eds.), Language distribution issues in bilingual schooling (pp. 61–103). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Popkewitz, T. (2008). Cosmopolitanism and the age of school reform: Science, education, and making society by making the child. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Postiglione, G., Jiao, B., & Manlaji. (2007). Language in Tibetan education: The case of the neidiban. In A. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China: Practices, policies and concepts (pp. 49–71). Toronto, ON: Multilingual Matters LTD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sangay, L. (1998). Education rights for Tibetans in Tibet and India. In J. D. Montgomery (Ed.), Human rights: Positive policies in Asia and the Pacific rim (pp. 285–307). Hollis: Hollis Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sautman, B. (1998). Preferential policies for ethnic minorities in China: The case of Xinjiang. Nationalalism and Ethnic Politics, 4(1–2), 86–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schluessel, E. T. (2007). ‘Bilingual’ education and discontent in Xinjiang. Central Asian Survey, 26(2), 251–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serpell, R. (2010). The significance of schooling: Life-journeys in an African society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in education or worldwide diversity and human rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tibet Autonomous Region Department of Education and Examination. (2012). 2012 nian Xizang zizhiqu putong gaoxiao zhaosheng luqu zuidi kongzhi fenshuxian jinri gongbu [announcement on the 2012 Tibet Autonomous Region minimum cut-off scores for college enrollment]. Retrieved July 20, 2012, from http://www.xzzsks.com.cn/Article/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=2274

  • Tochon, F. V. (2009). The key to global understanding: World Languages education—why schools need to adapt. Review of Educational Research, 79(2), 650–681.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vickers, E. (2009). The opportunity of China? Education, patriotic values and the Chinese state. In M. Lall & E. Vickers (Eds.), Education as a political tool in Asia (pp. 53–82). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wan, Minggang, & Zhang, Shanxin. (2007). Research and practice of Tibetan-Chinese bilingual education. In A. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China: Practice, policies and concepts (pp. 127–144). Toronto, ON: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Shiyong. (2007). The failure of education in preparing Tibetans for market participation. Asian Ethnicity, 8(2), 131–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Lixiong. (2009). Two imperialism in Tibet. In L. Wang & T. Shakya (Eds.), The struggle for Tibet (pp. 115–146). London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Binhua. (2005). Zhongwai bijiao: shuangyu jiaoyu de jieding, shuxin yu mudi [comparison between China and foreign countries: definition, nature and goal of bilingual education]. Retrieved May 11, 2012, At Ningbo Education Net: http://www.nbedu.gov.cn/zwgk/article/show_article.asp?ArticleID=17835

  • Wang, Chengzhi, & Zhou, Quanhou. (2003). Minority education in China: From state’s preferential policies to dislocated Tibetan schools. Educational Studies, 29(1), 86–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willinsky, J. (1998). Learning to divide the world: Education at empire’s end. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis, K. (2005). Theories and practice of development. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodson, C. (1933/1990). Mis-education of Negro. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xinhuanet. (2011). Xizang jiaoyu de kuayue shi fazhan [The Rapid Development and Progress of Tibetan Education in Sixty Years]. Retrieved July 18, 2012, from http://news.xinhuanet.com/local/2011-06/09/c_121511029.htm

  • Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xianfa [the constitution of the People’s Republic of China]. (2012). Retrieved July 16, 2012, from www.gov.cn

  • Zhou, Minglang. (2001). The politics of bilingual education in the People’s Republic of China since 1949. Bilingual Research Journal, 25(1–2), 147–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Curriculum and Instruction, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Apt 806, 215 N. Frances Street, Madison, WI, 53703, USA

    Chung Dolma

Authors
  1. Chung Dolma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chung Dolma .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, University of Macao, Taipa, Macao

    Zhidong Hao

  2. Pace University, New York, New York, USA

    Sheying Chen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Dolma, C. (2014). Language, Learning, and Identity: Problematizing the Education for Tibetans. In: Hao, Z., Chen, S. (eds) Social Issues in China. International Perspectives on Social Policy, Administration, and Practice, vol 1. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2224-2_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation