Abstract
This chapter presents the argument for the position of social semantics, where the meaning of representations on the Web is posited as both socially constructed and objective. The philosophical roots of social semantics are traced to Wittgenstein, in particular via the development of statistical methods of language understanding from Masterman and Spärk-Jones. Wittgenstein’s objections to both the causal theory and descriptivist theory of reference are explained. How an objective notion of sense leads to an understanding of representation as part of ‘extended’ things over time and space is given. The manifestation of an organically developing statistical Semantic Web is then given as the evidence of social semantics. Finally, the thesis of social semantics is extended in terms of determining the meaning of URIs on the Semantic Web. A tentative theory of collective intelligence then becomes our future work.
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Notes
- 1.
“Let us imagine a language for which the description given by Augustine is right. The language is meant to serve for communication between a builder A and an assistant B. A is building with building-stones: there are blocks, pillars, slabs and beams. B has to pass the stones, and that in the order in which A needs them. For this purpose they use a language consisting of the words “block,” “pillar,” “slab,” “beam.” A calls them out; – B brings the stone which he has learnt to bring at such-and-such a call …” (Wittgenstein 1953).
- 2.
We concur with Dummett that any account of meaning will have in essence three layers, where the outer layer has priority over the inner layers. First, the “core” would be the “theory of reference” while “surrounding the theory of reference will be a shell, forming the theory of sense” so that “the theory of reference and the theory of sense form together one part of the theory of meaning: the other, supplementary, part is the theory of force” (Dummett 1993b). Dummett calls force, the intended use of the sentence, as shown syntactically by mood (1993b). Wittgenstein also fails to be a strict behaviorist, for he also endorses a notion of purpose, by stating “It is in language that an expectation and its fulfillment make contact” (1953). We leave it to other theorists likeMillikan to discuss a thorough exploration of intended purpose (1989), perhaps by deriving how the Darwinian notion of proper function can serve as an account for sense and intended purpose – and so contradicting Wittgenstein’s statement that “Darwin’s theory has no more to do with philosophy than any other hypothesis in natural science” (1921).
- 3.
This point of Wittgenstein directly foreshadows the argument for the indeterminacy of translation of Quine (1960).
- 4.
This is far from an exhaustive account of the many arguments against private language by Wittgenstein. The simple Cartesian example of dreaming would suffice to undermine any idea that sense-data is unquestionably a true given. However, while Descartes would have statements about ‘sense data’ made while dreaming be false, Wittgenstein would prefer those statements to simply be meaningless, neither strictly true or false. As he said in one of his last written statements towards the end of his life: “Someone who, dreaming, says ‘I am dreaming,’ even if he speaks audibly in doing so, is no more right than if he said in his dream ‘it is raining,’ while it was in fact raining. Even if his dream were actually connected with the noise of the rain” (Wittgenstein 1969).
- 5.
We use the term ‘ontology’ in its full philosophical meaning here rather than the more restrained engineering meaning of the term for the Semantic Web.
- 6.
This is distinctly opposed to the viewpoint of certain post-structuralist or postmodern theorists like Baudrillard who hold that representations are ‘copies’ that are just as real or true as their original referent (Baudrillard 1994). Instead, we challenge this belief in a singularly real or authentic (and so static) ontology by incorporating the referent and representation into a new ontological object.
- 7.
The fact that on the Web these new objects are digital means that what we may be seeing now is the digitalization of the world, a notion that should be more widely explicated on its own.
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Halpin, H. (2013). Social Semantics. In: Social Semantics. Semantic Web and Beyond, vol 13. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1885-6_7
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