Abstract
Neuroreceptor imaging using PET and SPECT has contributed to clinical neuroscience and diagnosis (e.g. neurodegenerative disease and antipsychotic-drug receptor occupancy). Recent advances in dedicated PET and SPECT instrumentation, disease-specific radioligands, and image analysis techniques contributed to the further development of this field and its widespread application. In this chapter, we introduce the basis concepts of neuroreceptor imaging using typical radioligands, standard modeling and analysis techniques and discuss future research opportunities in the field.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Accorsi R (2008) Brain single-photon emission CT physics principles. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 29:1247–1256
Agdeppa ED, Kepe V, Liu J, Small GW, Huang SC, Petric A, Satyamurthy N, Barrio JR (2003) 2-Dialkylamino-6-acylmalononitrile substituted naphthalenes (DDNP analogs): novel diagnostic and therapeutic tools in Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Imaging Biol 5:404–417
Bentourkia M, Zaidi H (2007) Tracer kinetic modeling in PET. PET Clinics 2:267–277
Blomqvist G, Pauli S, Farde L, Eriksson L, Person A, Halldin C (1989) Dynamic models for reversible ligand binding. Kluwer, Dordrecht
Booij J, Tissingh G, Winogrodzka A, van Royen EA (1999) Imaging of the dopaminergic neurotransmission system using single- photon emission tomography and positron emission tomography in patients with Parkinsonism. Eur J Nucl Med 26:171–182
Bosman T, Van Laere K, Santens P (2003) Anatomically standardised (99 m)Tc-ECD brain perfusion SPET allows accurate differentiation between healthy volunteers, multiple system atrophy and idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 30:16–24
Brucke T, Kornhuber J, Angelberger P, Asenbaum S, Frassine H, Podreka I (1993) SPECT imaging of dopamine and serotonin transporters with [123I]beta-CIT. Binding kinetics in the human brain. J Neural Transm Gen Sect 94:137–146
Burns HD, Dannals RF, Langstrom B, Ravert HT, Zemyan SE, Duelfer T, Wong DF, Frost JJ, Kuhar MJ, Wagner HN (1984) (3-N-[11C]methyl)spiperone, a ligand binding to dopamine receptors: radiochemical synthesis and biodistribution studies in mice. J Nucl Med 25:1222–1227
Carson RE, Channing MA, Blasberg RG, Dunn BB, Cohen RM, Rice KC, Herscovitch P (1993) Comparison of bolus and infusion methods for receptor quantitation: application to [18F]cyclofoxy and positron emission tomography. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 13:24–42
Cho ZH, Son YD, Kim HK, Kim KN, Oh SH, Han JY, Hong IK, Kim YB (2008) A fusion PET-MRI system with a high-resolution research tomograph-PET and ultra-high field 7.0 T-MRI for the molecular-genetic imaging of the brain. Proteomics 8:1302–1323
Costa D, Walker Z, Walker R et al (1999) Dementia with Lewy bodies: preliminary data on clinical, pathological and FP-CIT SPECT correlations. Nucl Med Comm 20:467–468
Crouzel C, Guillaume M, Barre L, Lemaire C, Pike VW (1992) Ligands and tracers for PET studies of the 5-HT system–current status. Int J Rad Appl Instrum B 19:857–870
Cunningham VJ, Hume SP, Price GR, Ahier RG, Cremer JE, Jones AK (1991) Compartmental analysis of diprenorphine binding to opiate receptors in the rat in vivo and its comparison with equilibrium data in vitro. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11:1–9
Delforge J, Syrota A, Mazoyer BM (1989) Experimental design optimization: theory and application to estimation of receptor model parameters using dynamic positron emission tomography. Phys Med Biol 34:419–435
Dresel S, Kung MP, Huang XF, Plossl K, Hou C, Meegalla SK, Patselas GP, Mu M, Saffer JR, Kung HK (1999) Simultaneous SPECT studies of pre- and postsynaptic dopamine binding sites in baboons. J Nucl Med 40:660–666
Emond P, Garreau L, Chalon S, Boazi M, Caillet M, Bricard J, Frangin Y, Mauclaire L, Besnard JC, Guilloteau D (1997) Synthesis and ligand binding of nortropane derivatives: N-substituted 2beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(4′-iodophenyl)nortropane and N-(3-iodoprop-(2E)-enyl)-2beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(3′,4′-disubstituted phenyl)nortropane. New high-affinity and selective compounds for the dopamine transporter. J Med Chem 40:1366–1372
Farde L, Halldin C, Stone-Elander S, Sedvall G (1987) PET analysis of human dopamine receptor subtypes using 11C-SCH 23390 and 11C-raclopride. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 92:278–284
Farde L, Eriksson L, Blomqvist G, Halldin C (1989) Kinetic analysis of central [11C]Raclopride binding to D2-dopamine receptors studied by PET – a comparison to the equilibrium analysis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 9:696–708
Farde L, Halldin C, Muller L, Suhara T, Karlsson P, Hall H (1994) PET study of [11C]beta-CIT binding to monoamine transporters in the monkey and human brain. Synapse 16:93–103
Ferris CF, Febo M, Luo F, Schmidt K, Brevard M, Harder JA, Kulkarni P, Messenger T, King JA (2006) Functional magnetic resonance imaging in conscious animals: a new tool in behavioural neuroscience research. J Neuroendocrinol 18:307–318
Fowler JS, Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Ding YS (2004) 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-D-glucose and alternative radiotracers for positron emission tomography imaging using the human brain as a model. Semin Nucl Med 34:112–121
Furumoto S, Okamura N, Iwata R, Yanai K, Arai H, Kudo Y (2007) Recent advances in the development of amyloid imaging agents. Curr Top Med Chem 7:1773–1789
Gallezot JD, Bottlaender MA, Delforge J, Valette H, Saba W, Dolle F, Coulon CM, Ottaviani MP, Hinnen F, Syrota A, Gregoire MC (2008) Quantification of cerebral nicotinic acetylcholine receptors by PET using 2-[18F]fluoro-A-85380 and the multiinjection approach. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 28:172–180
Gilman S (1998) Imaging the brain. First of two parts. N Engl J Med 338:812–820
Gunn RN, Lammertsma AA, Hume SP, Cunningham VJ (1997) Parametric imaging of ligand-receptor binding in PET using a simplified reference region model. Neuroimage 6:279–287
Halldin C, Stone-Elander S, Farde L, Ehrin E, Fasth KJ, Langstrom B, Sedvall G (1986) Preparation of 11C-labelled SCH 23390 for the in vivo study of dopamine D-1 receptors using positron emission tomography. Int J Rad Appl Instrum A 37:1039–1043
Halldin C, Foged C, Chou YH, Karlsson P, Swahn CG, Sandell J, Sedvall G, Farde L (1998) Carbon-11-NNC 112: a radioligand for PET examination of striatal and neocortical D1-dopamine receptors. J Nucl Med 39:2061–2068
Halldin C, Gulyas B, Langer O, Farde L (2001) Brain radioligands–state of the art and new trends. Q J Nucl Med 45:139–152
Hammoud DA, Hoffman JM, Pomper MG (2007) Molecular neuroimaging: from conventional to emerging techniques. Radiology 245:21–42
Hartvig P, Agren H, Reibring L, Tedroff J, Bjurling P, Kihlberg T, Langstrom B (1991) Brain kinetics of L-[beta-11C]dopa in humans studied by positron emission tomography. J Neural Transm Gen Sect 86:25–41
Heiss WD, Herholz K (2006) Brain receptor imaging. J Nucl Med 47:302–312
Hosaka K, Ishii K, Sakamoto S, Mori T, Sasaki M, Hirono N, Mori E (2002) Voxel-based comparison of regional cerebral glucose metabolism between PSP and corticobasal degeneration. J Neurol Sci 199:67–71
Houle S, DaSilva JN, Wilson AA (2000) Imaging the 5-HT(1A) receptors with PET: WAY-100635 and analogues. Nucl Med Biol 27:463–466
Ichise M, Meyer JH, Yonekura Y (2001) An introduction to PET and SPECT neuroreceptor quantification models. J Nucl Med 42:755–763
Ichise M, Toyama H, Innis RB, Carson RE (2002) Strategies to improve neuroreceptor parameter estimation by linear regression analysis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 22:1271–1281
Ichise M, Liow JS, Lu JQ, Takano A, Model K, Toyama H, Suhara T, Suzuki K, Innis RB, Carson RE (2003) Linearized reference tissue parametric imaging methods: application to [11C]DASB positron emission tomography studies of the serotonin transporter in human brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 23:1096–1112
Iida H, Miura S, Shoji Y, Ogawa T, Kado H, Narita Y, Hatazawa J, Eberl S, Kanno I, Uemura K (1998) Noninvasive quantitation of cerebral blood flow using oxygen-15-water and a dual-PET system. J Nucl Med 39:1789–1798
Ikoma Y, Watabe H, Shidahara M, Naganawa M, Kimura Y (2008) PET kinetic analysis: error consideration of quantitative analysis in dynamic studies. Ann Nucl Med 22:1–11
Ikoma Y, Watabe H, Hayashi T, Miyake Y, Teramoto N, Minato K, Iida H (2009) Quantitative evaluation of changes in binding potential with a simplified reference tissue model and multiple injections of [11C]raclopride. Neuroimage 47:1639–1648
Innis RB, Cunningham VJ, Delforge J, Fujita M, Gjedde A, Gunn RN, Holden J, Houle S, Huang SC, Ichise M, Iida H, Ito H, Kimura Y, Koeppe RA, Knudsen GM, Knuuti J, Lammertsma AA, Laruelle M, Logan J, Maguire RP, Mintun MA, Morris ED, Parsey R, Price JC, Slifstein M, Sossi V, Suhara T, Votaw JR, Wong DF, Carson RE (2007) Consensus nomenclature for in vivo imaging of reversibly binding radioligands. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 27:1533–1539
Ito H, Goto R, Koyama M, Kawashima R, Ono S, Sato K, Fukuda H (1996) A simple method for the quantification of benzodiazepine receptors using iodine-123 iomazenil and single-photon emission tomography. Eur J Nucl Med 23:782–791
Ito H, Hietala J, Blomqvist G, Halldin C, Farde L (1998a) Comparison of the transient equilibrium and continuous infusion method for quantitative PET analysis of [11C]raclopride binding. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18:941–950
Ito H, Nyberg S, Halldin C, Lundkvist C, Farde L (1998b) PET imaging of central 5-HT2A receptors with carbon-11-MDL 100,907. J Nucl Med 39:208–214
Ito H, Takahashi H, Arakawa R, Takano H, Suhara T (2008) Normal database of dopaminergic neurotransmission system in human brain measured by positron emission tomography. Neuroimage 39:555–565
Ito H, Yokoi T, Ikoma Y, Shidahara M, Seki C, Naganawa M, Takahashi H, Takano H, Kimura Y, Ichise M, Suhara T (2010) A new graphic plot analysis for determination of neuroreceptor binding in positron emission tomography studies. Neuroimage 49:578–586
Jacobs AH, Li H, Winkeler A, Hilker R, Knoess C, Ruger A, Galldiks N, Schaller B, Sobesky J, Kracht L, Monfared P, Klein M, Vollmar S, Bauer B, Wagner R, Graf R, Wienhard K, Herholz K, Heiss WD (2003) PET-based molecular imaging in neuroscience. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 30:1051–1065
Joshi A, Fessler JA, Koeppe RA (2008) Improving PET receptor binding estimates from Logan plots using principal component analysis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 28:852–865
Klunk WE, Engler H, Nordberg A, Wang Y, Blomqvist G, Holt DP, Bergstrom M, Savitcheva I, Huang GF, Estrada S, Ausen B, Debnath ML, Barletta J, Price JC, Sandell J, Lopresti BJ, Wall A, Koivisto P, Antoni G, Mathis CA, Langstrom B (2004) Imaging brain amyloid in Alzheimer’s disease with Pittsburgh Compound-B. Ann Neurol 55:306–319
Koeppe RA, Holthoff VA, Frey KA, Kilbourn MR, Kuhl DE (1991) Compartmental analysis of [11C]flumazenil kinetics for the estimation of ligand transport rate and receptor distribution using positron emission tomography. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11:735–744
Koeppe RA, Raffel DM, Snyder SE, Ficaro EP, Kilbourn MR, Kuhl DE (2001) Dual-[11C]tracer single-acquisition positron emission tomography studies. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 21:1480–1492
Kudo Y, Okamura N, Furumoto S, Tashiro M, Furukawa K, Maruyama M, Itoh M, Iwata R, Yanai K, Arai H (2007) 2-(2-[2-Dimethylaminothiazol-5-yl]ethenyl)-6- (2-[fluoro]ethoxy)benzoxazole: a novel PET agent for in vivo detection of dense amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s disease patients. J Nucl Med 48:553–561
Kuhl DE, Reivich M, Alavi A, Nyary I, Staum MM (1975) Local cerebral blood volume determined by three-dimensional reconstruction of radionuclide scan data. Circ Res 36: 610–619
Kung HF, Kim HJ, Kung MP, Meegalla SK, Plossl K, Lee HK (1996) Imaging of dopamine transporters in humans with technetium-99 m TRODAT-1. Eur J Nucl Med 23:1527–1530
Kung MP, Hou C, Zhuang ZP, Zhang B, Skovronsky D, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VM, Kung HF (2002) IMPY: an improved thioflavin-T derivative for in vivo labeling of beta-amyloid plaques. Brain Res 956:202–210
Kyme AZ, Zhou VW, Meikle SR, Fulton RR (2008) Real-time 3D motion tracking for small animal brain PET. Phys Med Biol 53:2651–2666
Lammertsma AA, Hume SP (1996) Simplified reference tissue model for PET receptor studies. Neuroimage 4:153–158
Lang AE, Lozano AM (1998) Parkinson’s disease. First of two parts. N Engl J Med 339:1044–1053
Laruelle M, Baldwin RM, Malison RT, Zea-Ponce Y, Zoghbi SS, al-Tikriti MS, Sybirska EH, Zimmermann RC, Wisniewski G, Neumeyer JL et al (1993) SPECT imaging of dopamine and serotonin transporters with [123I]beta-CIT: pharmacological characterization of brain uptake in nonhuman primates. Synapse 13:295–309
Laruelle M, Martinez D, Talbot P, Abi-Dargham A (2003) Molecular imaging in psychiatric disorders. In: Valk PE, Bailey DL, Townsend DW, Maisey MN (eds) Positron emission tomography: basic science and clinical practice. Springer, London, pp 399–426
Logan J, Fowler JS, Volkow ND, Wolf AP, Dewey SL, Schlyer DJ, MacGregor RR, Hitzemann R, Bendriem B, Gatley SJ et al (1990) Graphical analysis of reversible radioligand binding from time-activity measurements applied to [N-11C-methyl]-(−)-cocaine PET studies in human subjects. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 10:740–747
Logan J, Fowler JS, Volkow ND, Ding YS, Wang GJ, Alexoff DL (2001) A strategy for removing the bias in the graphical analysis method. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 21:307–320
Lundkvist C, Halldin C, Ginovart N, Nyberg S, Swahn CG, Carr AA, Brunner F, Farde L (1996) [11C]MDL 100907, a radioligland for selective imaging of 5-HT(2A) receptors with positron emission tomography. Life Sci 58:PL187–PL192
Michaelis L, Menten ML (1913) Die kinetic der Invertinwirkung. Biochemistry Zeitschrift 49:333–369
Muller L, Halldin C, Farde L, Karlsson P, Hall H, Swahn CG, Neumeyer J, Gao Y, Milius R (1993) [11C] beta-CIT, a cocaine analogue. Preparation, autoradiography and preliminary PET investigations. Nucl Med Biol 20:249–255
Naganawa M, Kimura Y, Ishii K, Oda K, Ishiwata K, Matani A (2005) Extraction of a plasma time-activity curve from dynamic brain PET images based on independent component analysis. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 52:201–210
Oya S, Choi SR, Hou C, Mu M, Kung MP, Acton PD, Siciliano M, Kung HF (2000) 2-((2-((dimethylamino)methyl)phenyl)thio)-5-iodophenylamine (ADAM): an improved serotonin transporter ligand. Nucl Med Biol 27:249–254
Pike VW (2009) PET radiotracers: crossing the blood-brain barrier and surviving metabolism. Trends Pharmacol Sci 30:431–440
Pike VW, McCarron JA, Lammertsma AA, Osman S, Hume SP, Sargent PA, Bench CJ, Cliffe IA, Fletcher A, Grasby PM (1996) Exquisite delineation of 5-HT1A receptors in human brain with PET and [carbonyl-11C]WAY-100635. Eur J Pharmacol 301:R5–R7
Rahmim A, Zaidi H (2008) PET versus SPECT: strengths, limitations and challenges. Nucl Med Commun 29:193–207
Rahmim A, Tang J, Zaidi H (2009) Four-dimensional (4D) image reconstruction strategies in dynamic PET: beyond conventional independent frame reconstruction. Med Phys 36: 3654–3670
Rosso L, Gee AD, Gould IR (2008) Ab initio computational study of positron emission tomography ligands interacting with lipid molecule for the prediction of nonspecific binding. J Comput Chem 29:2397–2405
Scatchard G (1949) The attractions of proteins for small molecules and ions. Ann NY Acad Sci 51:660–672
Schlemmer HP, Pichler BJ, Schmand M, Burbar Z, Michel C, Ladebeck R, Jattke K, Townsend D, Nahmias C, Jacob PK, Heiss WD, Claussen CD (2008) Simultaneous MR/PET imaging of the human brain: feasibility study. Radiology 248:1028–1035
Schmidt KC and Turkheimer FE (2002) Kinetic modeling in positron emission tomography. Q J Nucl Med 46:70–85
Schwarz J, Tatsch K, Gasser T, Arnold G, Oertel WH (1997) [123]IBZM binding predicts dopaminergic responsiveness in patients with Parkinsonism and previous dopaminomimetic therapy. Mov Disord 12:898–902
Seibyl JP, Marek K, Quinlan D, Sheff K, Zoghbi S, Zea-Ponce Y, Baldwin RM, Fussell B, Smith EO, Charney DS (1995) Decreased 123Ibeta-CIT striatal uptake correlates with symptom severity in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Ann Neurol 38:589–598
Shidahara M, Ikoma Y, Kershaw J, Kimura Y, Naganawa M, Watabe H (2007) PET kinetic analysis: wavelet denoising of dynamic PET data with application to parametric imaging. Ann Nucl Med 21:379–386
Shoghi-Jadid K, Small GW, Agdeppa ED, Kepe V, Ercoli LM, Siddarth P, Read S, Satyamurthy N, Petric A, Huang SC, Barrio JR (2002) Localization of neurofibrillary tangles and β-amyloid plaques in the brains of living patients with Alzheimer disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiat 10:24–35
Slifstein M, Laruelle M (2000) Effects of statistical noise on graphic analysis of PET neuroreceptor studies. J Nucl Med 41:2083–2088
Sossi V (2007) Cutting-edge brain imaging with positron emission tomography. PET Clinics 2:91–104
Spetsieris PG, Moeller JR, Dhawan V, Ishikawa T, Eidelberg D (1995) Visualizing the evolution of abnormal metabolic networks in the brain using PET. Comput Med Imaging Graph 19:295–306
Stout DB, Zaidi H (2008) Preclinical multimodality imaging in vivo. PET Clin 3:251–273
Suehiro M, Scheffel U, Ravert HT, Dannals RF, Wagner HN Jr (1993) [11C](+)McN5652 as a radiotracer for imaging serotonin uptake sites with PET. Life Sci 53:883–892
Tikosfky RS, Ichise M, Seibyl JP, Verhoeff NPLG (1999) Functional brain SPECT imaging: 1999 and beyond. Semin Nucl Med 29:193–238
Tsoumpas C, Turkheimer FE, Thielemans K (2008) A survey of approaches for direct parametric image reconstruction in emission tomography. Med Phys 35:3963–3971
Turkheimer FE, Banati RB, Visvikis D, Aston JA, Gunn RN, Cunningham VJ (2000) Modeling dynamic PET-SPECT studies in the wavelet domain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20:879–893
Van Laere K, Zaidi H (2006) Quantitative analysis in functional brain imaging. In: Zaidi H (ed) Quantitative analysis of nuclear medicine images. Springer, New York, pp 435–470
Vander BT, Minoshima S, Giordani B, Foster NL, Frey KA, Berent S, Albin RL, Koeppe RA, Kuhl DE (1997) Cerebral metabolic differences in Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases matched for dementia severity. J Nucl Med 38:797–802
Vaska P, Woody CL, Schlyer DJ, Shokouhi S, Stoll SP, Pratte J-F, O’Connor P, Junnarkar SS, Rescia S, Yu B, Purschke M, Kandasamy A, Villanueva A, Kriplani A, Radeka V, Volkow N, Lecomte R, Fontaine R (2004) RatCAP: miniaturized head-mounted PET for conscious rodent brain imaging. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 51:2718–2722
Watabe H, Channing MA, Der MG, Adams HR, Jagoda E, Herscovitch P, Eckelman WC, Carson RE (2000) Kinetic analysis of the 5-HT2A ligand [11C]MDL 100,907. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20:899–909
Watabe H, Jino H, Kawachi N, Teramoto N, Hayashi T, Ohta Y, Iida H (2005) Parametric imaging of myocardial blood flow with 15O-water and PET using the basis function method. J Nucl Med 46:1219–1224
Watabe H, Ikoma Y, Kimura Y, Naganawa M, Shidahara M (2006) PET kinetic analysis–compartmental model. Ann Nucl Med 20:583–588
Wilson AA, Ginovart N, Schmidt M, Meyer JH, Threlkeld PG, Houle S (2000) Novel radiotracers for imaging the serotonin transporter by positron emission tomography: synthesis, radiosynthesis, and in vitro and ex vivo evaluation of (11)C-labeled 2-(phenylthio)araalkylamines. J Med Chem 43:3103–3110
Woody C, Vaska P, Schlyer D, Pratte J-F, Junnarkar S, Park S-J, Stoll S, Purschke M, Southekal S, Kriplani A, Krishnamoorthy S, Maramraju S, Lee D, Schiffer W, Dewey S, Neill J, Kandasamy A, O’Connor P, Radeka V, Fontaine R, Lecomte R (2007) Initial studies using the RatCAP conscious animal PET tomograph. Nucl Instr Meth A 571:14–17
Wu HM, Hoh CK, Choi Y, Schelbert HR, Hawkins RA, Phelps ME, Huang SC (1995) Factor analysis for extraction of blood time-activity curves in dynamic FDG-PET studies. J Nucl Med 36:1714–1722
Zaidi H, Montandon M-L (2006) The new challenges of brain PET imaging technology. Curr Med Imag Rev 2:3–13
Zhou Y, Ye W, Brasic JR, Wong DF (2010) Multi-graphical analysis of dynamic PET. Neuroimage 49(4):2947–2957
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation under grants SNSF 31003A-135576 and SNSF 33CM30-124114.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zaidi, H., Shidahara, M. (2012). Neuroreceptor Imaging. In: Choi, IY., Gruetter, R. (eds) Neural Metabolism In Vivo. Advances in Neurobiology, vol 4. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1788-0_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1788-0_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-1787-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-1788-0
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)