Abstract
The marine environment provides many services to the human population of the world’s coastal zone. Specifically seawater is a naturally abundant resource that numerous industries can utilize as a cooling medium. For seawater to be efficiently and reliably utilized for cooling a biocide must be added to prevent marine growth. Typical industry practice along coastlines worldwide includes continuous chlorination of the seawater with occasional shock dosing. This practice is not based upon ecotoxicological data of targeted species but rather either a post-hoc observation of anti-fouling efficiency or an attempt to meet regulated discharge to sea residual biocide concentrations. Shock dosing is applied in the erroneous notion that it stops fouling species from adapting to continuous chlorination. These practices have been identified as major contributors to land-based pollution of the sea, especially within the Arabian Gulf. Therefore, opportunities exist for science-based decisions to optimize both site-specific biocide regimes and regulatory discharge limits.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abuzinada AH, Barth H-J, Krupp F, Böer B, Al Abdessalaam TZ (2008) Editors: protecting the gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser Verlag, Switzerland, 285pp
Al-Matar SM, Jackson R, Alhazeem SH (1993) Distribution and abundance of pearl oyster beds in Kuwait. ROPME/IOC (UNESCO)/UNEP/NOAA. In: Scientific workshop on results of the R/V Mt. Mitchell open sea cruise. Kuwait, 24–28 Jan 1993, 43pp
Al-Sayed HA, Al-Rumaihi EM, Al-Rumaidhm MJ (1993) Some morphometric measurements and population structure of the pearl oyster Pinctada radiata at two different coasts in Bahrain. Report to Bahrain Center for Studies and Scientific Research, 17pp
Azariah J (2000) Environmental ethics of chlorine in the marine biome. Eubios J Asian Intl Bioethics 10:81–82
Bank W (1999) Pollution prevention and abatement handbook 1998—towards cleaner production. World Bank, United Nations Environmental Programme, World Health Organisation, Washington, 457pp
Bin Mahfouz AS, El-Halwagi MM, Abdel-Wahab A (2006) Process integration techniques for optimizing seawater cooling systems and biocide discharge. Clean Techn Environ Policy 8:203–215
BREF (2001) Reference document on the application of best available techniques to industrial cooling systems. European Commission Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Bureau, Seville, Spain. Available at http://eippcb.jrc.es/ (accessed on 10 Feb 2009)
Bruijs MCM, Venhuis LP (2001) Biocide optimization using an online biofilm monitor. Power Plant Chem 3(7):431–436
Capuzzo JM, Goldman JC, Davidson JA, Lawrence SA (1977) Chlorinated cooling waters in the marine environment: development of effluent guidelines. Mar Pollut Bull 8(7):161–163
EU RAR (2007) Draft European union risk assessment report for sodium hypochlorite. European Chemical Bureau Toxicology and Chemical Substances Unit, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, European Commission’s Joint Research Centre, 261p
Göksu MZL, Çevik F, Findik O (2002) Lethal chlorine concentrations for the pearl oyster Pinctada radiata (Leach, 1814). Turkish J Vet Animal Sci 26(1):157–160
Gribble GW (2004) Amazing organohalogens. Am Sci 92(4):342–349
IFC (2008) General environmental, health and safety guidelines and liquefied natural gas (LNG) facilities environmental, health and safety guidelines. International Finance Corporation. Available at http://www.ifc.org/EHSGuidelinesUpdate (accessed on 10 Feb 2009)
Jenner HA, Taylor CJ, van Donk M, Khalanski M (1997) Chlorination by-products in chlorinated cooling water of some European coastal power stations. Mar Environ Res 43(4):279–293
Jenner HA, Polman HJG, van Wijck R (2003) Four years experience with a new chlorine dosing regime against macrofouling. In: Presented at VGB (Verband der Großkessel-Besitzer e.V.) meeting 2003, Essen
Johnson I, Pick JA, van Wijk D (2006) A perspective on the environmental risk of halogenated by-products from uses of hypochlorite using a whole effluent toxicity based approach. Environ Toxicol Chem 25(4):1171–1177
Khalanski M (2002) Organic products generated by the chlorination of cooling water at marine power stations. Journe´es d’Etudes du Cebedeau, Tribune de l’Eau No. 619-620-621, France, pp 24–39
Khan NY, Al-Ajmi D (1998) Post-war imperatives for the sustainable management of the Gulf ecosystem. Environ Internat 24(12):239–248
Khan NY, Munawar M, Price ARG (2002) (eds) The Gulf ecosystem. Health and sustainability. Backhuys, Leiden. Ecovision World Monograph Series, 509pp
Khordagui HK (1992) A conceptual approach to selection of a control measure for residual chlorine discharge in Kuwait Bay. Environ Int 16(3):309–316
Kolluru VS, Buchak EM, Brinkmann PE (2003) Hydrodynamic modelling of coastal LNG cooling water discharge. J Energy Eng 29(1):16–31
Kramer KJM, Jenner HA, de Zwart D (1989) The valve movement response of mussels: a tool in biological monitoring. Hydrobiology 188/189:433–443
Lam PKS, Gray JS (2001) Predicting effects of toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 42(3):169–173
Latteman S, Höpner T (2008) Impacts of seawater desalination plants on the marine environment of the Gulf. In: Abuzinada AH, Barth H-J, Krupp F, Böer B, Al Abdessalaam TZ (eds) Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser Verlag, Switzerland, p 285
Ma SWY, Kueh CSW, Chiu GWL, Wild SR, Yip JY (1998) Environmental management of coastal cooling water discharges in Hong Kong. Wat Sci Technol 38(8):267–274
MacCrehan WA, Bedner M, Helz GR (2005) Making chlorine greener: performance of alternative dechlorination agents in wastewater. Chemosphere 60:381–388
Mohammed SZ, Yassien MH (2003) Population parameters of the pearl oyster Pinctada radiata (Leach) in Qatari Waters, Arabian Gulf. Turk J Zool 27:339–343
Nour El-Din NM (2004) Impact of cooling water discharge on the benthic and planktonic pelagic fauna along the coastal waters of Qatar (Arabian Gulf). Egyptian J Aquat Res 30(A):150–159
Polman HJ, Jenner HA (2002) Pulse-Chlorination®, the best available technique in macrofouling mitigation using chlorine. Power Plant Chem 4(2):93–97
Quack B, Wallace DWR (2003) Air-sea flux of bromoform: controls, rates, and implications. Global Biogeochem Cycles 17(1):1023. doi:10.1029/2002GB001890
Taylor CJL (2006) The effects of biological fouling control at coastal and estuarine power stations. Mar Pollut Bull 53(1–4):30–48
Wang J-T, Chen M-H, Lee H-J, Chang W-B, Chen C-C, Pai S-C, Meng P-J (2008) A model to predict total chlorine residue in the cooling seawater of a power plant using Iodine colorimetric method. Int J Mol Sci 9:542–553
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Macdonald, I.A., Polman, H.J., Jenner, H.A., Quyam, S.Q.B.M. (2012). Pulse-Chlorination®: Anti-Fouling Optimization in Seawater Cooling Systems. In: Rajagopal, S., Jenner, H., Venugopalan, V. (eds) Operational and Environmental Consequences of Large Industrial Cooling Water Systems. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1698-2_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1698-2_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-1697-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-1698-2
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)