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Applications of Electrodermal Recording

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Electrodermal Activity

Abstract

The third part of this book is dedicated to various applications of EDA recording. The aim is to provide a theoretical framework for the use of the different EDA parameters described in Chap. 2 as psychophysiological indicators in the appropriate fields. Since there are thousands of articles reporting EDA results (Sect. 1.1.3), their comprehensive description would go far beyond the limits of the present book. Instead, the focus will be on giving more detailed information especially for studies which enlighten either methodological issues or provide support for interpretation of results in the light of psychophysiological theories related to EDA.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For summaries of older results, see Prokasy and Raskin (1973) and Edelberg (1972a). More recent reviews will be referred to within the appropriate sections.

  2. 2.

    During the 1970s, in the wake of the cognitive “paradigm shift” (Sect. 3.1.2.1 “Cognitive vs. Noncognitive View of EDR Conditioning”), comparator theories of OR have been partly rephrased in terms of resource allocation in a system with limited capacity (Sect. 3.1.2.1 “Components of EDR Conditioning”). A brief description of Öhman’s (1979) and his own model is provided by Hugdahl (1995, pp. 135–138). The possible role of the SC-OR being a potential indicator of resource allocation will be discussed in Sects. 3.1.3.1 and 3.1.3.4. For more information on SC-OR and resource allocation see, for example, Siddle (1991), Siddle, Lipp, and Dall (1996) and Filion, Dawson, Schell, and Hazlett (1991), described in Sect. 3.1.3.2; critical results were reported by Niepel (2001).

  3. 3.

    The Groves-Thompson theory had been developed based on research on spinal cats. Since the proposed sensitization process has not been unambiguously demonstrated in studies with humans, such a conclusion is barely justified (see Sect. 3.1.1.3).

  4. 4.

    Below-zero habituation represents a continuation of stimulus presentation after reaching an individual habituation criterion, e.g., two successive “zero-responses” (Sect. 3.1.1.3).

  5. 5.

    In steps of 10 dB, each stimulus applied five times in a balanced design, SR recording with 50 μA constant current using 2 cm2 Ag electrodes from two fingers of the right hand, transformed to SC.

  6. 6.

    In steps of 20 dB; SCR recorded with standard electrodes and voltage, however unipolar thenar against a neutral forearm side and with K–Y gel (Experiment 3).

  7. 7.

    Recorded AC coupled (Sect. 2.1.3) with a 5 s time constant volar from the left hand’s fingers.

  8. 8.

    As already described at the end of Sect. 2.5.1.1, Toyokura (2006) obtained a directly proportional relationship between the intensity of an electrical stimulus applied to the median nerve at the wrist and SPR amp., being either positively or negatively directed (Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Amplitudes of Endosomatic Responses”) in 40 male participants. This relationship persisted even after habituation. Furthermore, OR reinstatement was clearly observable if the electric stimulation was switched to magnetic stimulation.

  9. 9.

    Rotenberg and Vedenyapin (1985) in a study with 15 participants being presented a series of tones, a subset of whom had to react to the tone, found some evidence of SPR amp. to the tones being more dependent on decision making than on motor preparation.

  10. 10.

    Recorded as SRR palmar, 0.5–5.0 s after stimulus onset and subjected to a logarithmic SCR transformation.

  11. 11.

    Measured with stainless steel 2 × 3 cm electrodes from the volar surface of the left hand’s fingers with Biocom Inc. Biogel as contact medium; 1–5 s following stimulus onset was used as time window.

  12. 12.

    Stimuli were one-word (name of an occupation) or two-word stimuli (occupation name combined with name of a hobby), both kinds mutually used as standard and as test stimuli. The participants had to recall as many words as possible. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were generated by comparing the distributions of standardized responses to test stimuli vs. standard stimuli.

  13. 13.

    A name of a hobby instead of a certain number, as used in an earlier experiment (Ben-Shakhar & Lieblich 1982), had a clear common component shared with the standard stimuli (which were also numbers).

  14. 14.

    Recorded with 12.55 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with K–Y jelly from thenar/hypothenar sites of the nondominant hand, using 1.0 V DC and a Wheatstone bridge. Two separate channels were used for SCL and SCR to enable a full range of 5 μS for the response channel (Sects. 2.1.3 and 2.2.4.1). SCR amp. were scored as changes in SC from the prestimulus level to the response peak within a 3–7 s window after the presentation of words.

  15. 15.

    Recorded bilaterally from the hypothenar eminence with standard methodology, using Beckman miniature electrodes, logarithmically transformed.

  16. 16.

    Bundy’s “X” (Sect. 2.5.2.5, (2.22)) and SCR rec.t/2 yielded significant correlations for 3 of the 10 participants.

  17. 17.

    During the last 2 decades, SC-OR has been frequently used to determine the OR component of a so-called prepulse, which has been applied to modify the human startle eyeblink reflex (Filion, Dawson, & Schell, 1998). Such a stimulus either terminates before, or continues up to, and sometimes beyond the startle stimulus (Wynn, Dawson, & Schell, 2000). It was hypothesized that a prolonged prepulse may elicit a generalized OR (Sect. 3.1.1).

  18. 18.

    Recorded between an active palmar and an inactive wrist site with Ag electrodes being 2.6 cm in diameter.

  19. 19.

    Between 40 and 120 dB in steps of 20 dB, however with independent groups of 25 participants each. Endosomatic EDA was recorded from left thenar against pretreated forearm sites, while exosomatic measures were taken as SR from the right hand palmar vs. dorsal with 40 μA, being transformed to SC values, using Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes with NaCl paste for both measures.

  20. 20.

    Although not aiming at the OR/DR distinction, Toyokura (2006) demonstrated in 40 healthy participants that a positive SPR component was more likely to be observed in high-intensity compared to low-intensity median nerve electrical stimulation. In the second out of four consecutive sessions, the predominant SPR component switched from positivity to negativity, which the author interpreted as an effect of habituation. However, the stimulation sequence was not suitable for investigating habituation as described in Sect. 3.1.1.3. A sort of OR reinstatement was observed when introducing a magnetic stimulation to the neck, which also showed no habituation of the SPR. SP (labeled SSR, see Sect. 3.5.4) was recorded from the right midpalm against the forearm.

  21. 21.

    In 15 dB steps, 30 ms stimulus rise time and 2 s duration. EDA was recorded with standard methodology, however using K–Y gel.

  22. 22.

    Presenting 1 kHz tones between 80 and 120 dB intensity, in steps of 10 dB.

  23. 23.

    Recorded with 32 Hz and 8 μA via 1 cm2 Ag electrodes, using paper soaked with 0.5% NaCl as an electrolyte, dorsal from the first and third finger, and palmar from the second and fourth finger of the nondominant hand.

  24. 24.

    Recorded with standard methodology from the middle phalanges of the index and middle finger of the left hand. SCR amp. with latencies between 1 and 5 s after stimulus onset and an amplitude exceeding 0.02 μS were evaluated and log-transformed (Sect. 2.3.3.3).

  25. 25.

    Providing such an amplitude criterion is also of fundamental significance for investigations into the so-called “below-zero” habituation (Thompson & Spencer, 1966), which also requires taking into account the sensitivity of the physiological system in question (Stephenson & Siddle, 1976). However, there is only weak evidence from studies with humans for an influence of the duration of “below-zero” habituation on the spontaneous recovery of an OR after being habituated (i.e., OR reinstatement; Siddle, Remington, Kuiack, & Haines 1983).

  26. 26.

    Hölzl, Wilhelm, Lutzenberger, and Schandry (1975, Fig. 12) in their study described in Sect. 2.6.5 observed three types of SCR courses in their 28 participants. Most of them showed an exponential decrease over trials, a few “sensitizers” exhibited a slight increase, and some other “initial sensitizers” showed an increase followed by a considerable decrease.

  27. 27.

    This result gives rise to the hitherto unanswered question of the adequate unit of measurement in EDR habituation studies (Sect. 2.6.5). However, the habituation effects in this study may have been obscured by the fact that a counterbalanced presentation of different stimulus intensities had been applied. This is different from standard habituation series, which may have contributed to the marked dishabituation effects observed with the high-intensity stimuli.

  28. 28.

    Many authors combine two or more trials forming a trial block when reporting habituation courses.

  29. 29.

    For example, if significantly smaller values for a as well as for b are observed in a group with older participants as compared to a younger group, and if the age effects on the ordinate value a and on the gradient b are independent of each other as well as of the correlation between a and b, the correction of the gradient b according to (3.1), taking into account the ordinate value a, will lead to a reduction of the “independent” age effect on gradient b. In general, it must be regarded as difficult to determine the relative influence of experimental conditions or somatic variables like age and gender on values of a and b. Therefore, if those conditions have a significant influence on a, corrections according to (3.1) should be avoided.

  30. 30.

    SCR recorded with standard methodology during the presentation of 1 kHz tones (70 or 90 dB). The signs from Siddle and Heron’s (1976) Table 2 were inverted to make the directions of correlations comparable to each other.

  31. 31.

     KHz, 65 dB, 5 s duration tone. EDA was recorded as SR with 1 cm2 Ag/AgCl electrodes and NaCl paste, using 11 μA current, transformed into log SC units.

  32. 32.

    Three successive SCRs recorded with standard methodology, showing SCR amp. below 0.02 μS.

  33. 33.

    The author thanks Professor John J. Furedy for his contributions to this section, especially to its historical part.

  34. 34.

    The problems with this design, from the perspective of the cognitive contingency paradigm, are discussed in detail by Grings, Givens, and Carey (1979), Rescorla (1967), and Seligman (1969). However, from a consideration of the first fact regarding EDR conditioning, noted below, these methodological problems do not apply to the within-subjects, differential conditioning design. The practical advantage of this design is its greater sensitivity, which is important for the EDR conditioning phenomenon. If a between-subjects design is used, the conditioning/control difference requires about 20 or more participants just to obtain the basic conditioning phenomenon at the 0.05 level of significance within humans, partly because the aversive UCS (shock or noise) has to be kept at relatively mild levels for ethical reasons. This practical advantage is much less important in the older human eyelid conditioning preparation (for an account, see Kimble, 1961), which is more robust and allows observation of gradually increasing acquisition functions over as many as 100 trials; this preparation has mostly used the between-subjects design.

  35. 35.

    For ethical reasons, it came into use in the recent practice of aversive EDR conditioners to have participants set their own level of UCS intensity, rather than the older practice of the experimenter setting UCS intensity for all participants. This practice reduces the robustness of the ED-CR phenomenon, as well as making it more difficult to vary UCS intensity itself, which used to be one of the basic independent variables of human eyelid conditioning (Spence, Haggard, & Ross, 1958), seldom if ever appears in current human EDR conditioning papers.

  36. 36.

    Electrodermal recording has been described as being taken from the left index finger and the right palm with a Fels dermohmeter.

  37. 37.

    Formerly abbreviated as FAR and SAR, respectively.

  38. 38.

    This argument may be questioned, based on findings obtained by Furedy and Scull (1971). They observed what they called a “relative refractory period” of at least 20 s for an EDR. However, in the present author’s view, this term could be misleading, since its physiological meaning refers to nerve discharge in time windows of millisecond duration. Instead, the observed phenomena might be discussed in terms of relationships between EDR amp. following each other in short sequence (Sects. 2.3.1.5 and 2.5.2.5). A decrease of SCR amp. with shortening the ISI of average 20 s length by 50% was recently observed by Breska, Maoz, and Ben-Shakhar (2011), in their study mentioned in Footnote 58, Sect. 2.3.1.5. Since the ISIs used in classical conditioning are even much shorter, the logical consequence would be that the larger the FIR, the smaller the following (by about 4 s) SIR, a factor which would contribute a negative correlation between FIR and SIR. On the other hand, in terms of trial-to-trial variation, one would expect a positive correlation between FIR and SIR. Accordingly, the sum of these two opposing factors may produce a zero correlation which does not necessarily indicate real independence between FIR and SIR. The eyelid conditioning case is different, as in this paradigm a clear independence between FIR (called alpha response) and SIR (called and scored as the true CR) is demonstrated inasmuch as the former decreases as a function of repeated CS–UCS trials (habituation), whereas the latter increases (CR acquisition).

  39. 39.

    A very strong version of this “reinstated” OR was used (e.g., Stewart et al., 1961) to reject the short-interval ISI preparation as a demonstration of EDR conditioning, a preparation that required CS-alone test trials during acquisition to assess conditioning. The argument was that the EDRs to such CS-alone test trials were not CRs, but were merely “reinstated” ORs to stimulus change, rather than to classical EDR conditioning. Now it is true that marked stimulus change does increase the EDR, as in a crossmodal change following 15 repetitions (Furedy, 1968), and this could be reasonably referred to as the phenomenon of OR reinstatement. However, this change effect requires far greater quantitative and qualitative changes from repetition to change than are involved in CS-alone test trials during acquisition (CS–UCS pairings), so that the empirical evidence that supports the reinstated OR interpretation on UCS-omission trials is quite weak (Furedy & Poulos, 1977).

  40. 40.

    EDRs were recorded as SRRs using standard methodology, however with K–Y gel.

  41. 41.

    The role of awareness in classical electrodermal conditioning has also been extensively discussed by Dawson and Schell (1985, pp. 107 f.). They compared the technique used in various studies of their own group and by other researchers, embedding CS–UCS pairings within a “masking task,” with the method of CNS ablation studies, since the participant’s attention and concern is effectively directed away from the learning task. During the 1970s, the Dawson group published seven separate experiments involving more than 300 participants using the same masking task (reporting colors of lights and position of tones). They all showed that CS–UCS pairings were not sufficient to establish differential autonomic conditioning unless participants were aware of the contingency, the most suitable measure of which was a short recognition post-conditioning questionnaire. Their conclusion was that controlled cognitive processes are necessary for human autonomic discrimination in classical conditioning (see also Sect. 3.1.3.2).

  42. 42.

    There is also the possibility of a moderate heritability of electrodermal differential fear conditioning (Sect. 2.4.3.3).

  43. 43.

    Recorded from the fingers as SR with 2 cm2 Ag electrodes, NaCl paste, and 45 μA current strength, changed to SC values and square-root transformed. Two-second white noise of 100 dB served as UCS, while the CS was 80, 90, or 98 dB, varying between 2 and 10 s, in 2 s increments.

  44. 44.

    Recorded from the fingers as SR with 2.5 cm2 Ag electrodes, using 45 μA current, changed to SC and square-root transformed.

  45. 45.

    Recorded as SR from the medial phalanges using standard methodology. SRRs exceeding an amplitude criterion of 0.05 kΩ were transformed to SCRs and additionally square-root transformed.

  46. 46.

    Recorded after each UCS presentation by means of a seven-point Likert scale via microkeys.

  47. 47.

    Recorded with constant 0.5 V across two sintered-pellet 8 mm diameter AgCl electrodes filled with K–Y jelly from the hypothenar left-hand palm. FIR amplitudes (starting 1–4 s after CS onset) were range-corrected (Sect. 2.3.3.4 “Range Corrections”) using the largest UCR as the maximum range for each participant.

  48. 48.

    During the last 3 decades, EDRs have been frequently obtained in the context of startle eyeblink modulation (e.g., Böhmelt, Vanman, Dawson, & Boucsein, 1983; Lipp, Siddle, & Dall, 1997). Earlier research in this area focused on facilitation or inhibition of the startle response by a nonstartling stimulus presented prior to the startling stimulus and the influence of attentional factors on the magnitude of the eyeblink responses. Based on the bidirectional nature of the valence dimension of emotions, Lang, Bradley, and Cuthbert (1990) proposed that not only attentional but also emotional processes should have the ability of modifying the startle eyeblink. Since the nature of the startle response is more DR- than OR-like (Sect. 3.1.1.2), a positive emotional foreground stimulus should diminish the startle eyeblink magnitude, whereas emotional negative foreground stimulation should enhance its magnitude. Because of its indicator function for the intensity of especially negatively tuned emotional states, EDRs have come into use for verifying the nature of emotional foreground stimulation (e.g., Lipp et al., 1997). Since the startle eyeblink research does not primarily aim at EDR conditioning, it will not be reviewed in this section.

  49. 49.

    Recorded with standard methodology from the right hand’s hypothenar eminence. The amplitude criterion was set to 0.05 μS.

  50. 50.

    With two 1 cm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with K–Y gel (which is hypertonic) attached to the hypothenar palm of the left hand, the signal was visually inspected and corrected for artifacts. SCRs were scored if their maximum increase appeared within 1–4 s after CS onset. Zero responses were included in all analyses, and a range correction was applied using the largest UCR peak (between 9 and 13 s after UCR) in the acquisition phase as maximum individual value. A square-root transformation was applied to the SCR amp. data to improve distributional characteristics (Sect. 2.3.3.3).

  51. 51.

    This is a matter of evaluating superimposed EDRs (Fig. 2.16, Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Amplitudes of Exosomatic Responses Recorded with Direct Current”) but is not necessarily an argument in favor of discarding the distinction between FIR and SIR, as proposed by Pineles et al. (2009).

  52. 52.

    Recorded as SC with a Fels dermohmeter and zinc electrodes, taped to the first and third fingers of the participant’s right hand.

  53. 53.

    Recorded from the first and second left-hand fingers with constant current.

  54. 54.

    Recorded palmar/dorsal with zinc electrodes, saline electrode cream and a constant current of 40 μA. SRRs which occurred within 5 s after the presentation of the light were not scored. The NS.SRR freq. was transformed to reduce skewness and expressed as percentage of the NS.SRR freq. obtained during an initial 2-min resting period.

  55. 55.

    Measured as SR with a Fels dermohmeter, using 70 μA current, with zinc-manganese dioxide electrodes from the left palm and upper arm. Contact was made by a 5% saline-soaked cotton ball.

  56. 56.

    Recorded with Ag/AgCl electrodes and Beckman cream from ethanol-cleaned volar finger sites using 20 μA constant current. Red and green lights were used to signal that either an increase or a decrease of SRL would be reinforced by a flashing white light.

  57. 57.

    Roberts, Lacroix, and Wright (1974) could not observe instrumental conditioning of spontaneous SPRs in curarized rats. They used an electric shock as reinforcer which was applied when SPRs appeared exceeding either 10, 35, 60, or 75% of the greatest response during the baseline. As compared to a yoked-control group, no differences in SPR frequency appeared. Neither variation of shock intensity nor of curare dosage had an effect.

  58. 58.

    Recorded palmar vs. dorsal with 2 cm2 zinc electrodes filled with NaCl cream, transformed to log units.

  59. 59.

    Two SR channels with different sensitivity were used to avoid loss of SRR data in the high sensitivity channel (Sect. 2.1.3) which allowed the detection of 500 Ω changes (amplitude criterion). Eight-millimeter diameter zinc electrodes together with a zinc sulfate cream were placed on the participants’ fingers. Spontaneous EDRs were defined as not occuring within 6 s following any observable event which could give rise to an EDR (see Fig. 2.20, Sect. 2.3.2.2).

  60. 60.

    Recorded by Ag/AgCl electrodes and presumably hypertonic cream from the first and third fingers of the participant’s nondominant hand, voltage not reported.

  61. 61.

    Recorded with standard methodology except for using K–Y gel and a 1.0 V constant current. A Wheatstone bridge was incorporated to allow for greater amplification of the signal being transformed to SC. SCR amp. was calculated as the difference between the maximum SCL during 2–5 s and the minimum SCL during 0–2 s following the reward.

  62. 62.

    Recorded by means of a Wheatstone bridge, using 10 μA current, with a standard electrode/cream setting from the fingers. The amplitude criterion was 415 Ω for psychopaths and 376 Ω for controls.

  63. 63.

    Recorded with two-element lead electrodes, K–Y gel and 10 μA CC from the first and second fingers of the left hand, transformed to and stored as SCL, using a continuous tone pitch change as biofeedback signal.

  64. 64.

    SC reactivity was the peak change in SCL during the accident film, calculated as change from the last minute of the resting period.

  65. 65.

    These authors measured skin resistance with constant voltage (which normally gives conductance values) from the first and second fingers of the participant’s nondominant hand, using 20 × 25 mm electrodes.

  66. 66.

    Stern (1972) showed that SRR biofeedback training had only a small effect on the participants’ ability to detect whether or not they reacted electrodermally to a low-intensity sound. Furthermore, prior EDA biofeedback training was more effective for the detection of large as compared to small EDRs.

  67. 67.

    Recorded with dry silver electrodes taped to the palmar surface of the left index and middle fingers with unreported voltage; the biofeedback signal was presented visually on a sort of thermometer.

  68. 68.

    The reader is referred to reviews given by Raskin (1973), Spinks and Siddle (1983), or Koelega (1990), as well as Sect. 3.3.2.2.

  69. 69.

    Despite this component labeled “tonic” by Pribram and McGuinness (1975), the preparatory EDA is often clearly phasic in nature, as in the case of the SIR (Sect. 3.1.2.1). Additionally, the CNV paradigm, which is regarded by Pribram and collaborator as appropriate for testing preparatory activation, is mostly tested within an S1–S2 paradigm with intervals of less than 6 s. “Tonic” cannot be used here in the sense of longer-lasting shifts of arousal level; therefore, “phasic” would be more suitable. Since the sudomotor pathway used here is clearly connected to CNS structures preparing distinct motor actions (see Fig. 1.6, Sect. 1.3.4.1), the label “phasic” for this component is preferred here.

  70. 70.

    Recorded as SR unipolar between a 2 cm2 electrode at the middle finger and a 75 cm2 electrode on the upper arm with starch cream and 8 μA/cm2 constant current, transformed into SC scores.

  71. 71.

    Performed as a reanalysis, in terms of electrodermal recovery, of data reported by Furedy and Klajner (1972) from a study with high vs. low intensity and signaled vs. nonsignaled UCS.

  72. 72.

    This can be stated only for schizophrenic responders, since habituation cannot be measured in nonresponders (Sect. 3.4.2.2).

  73. 73.

    For the general excitatory and inhibitory role of the amygdala and the hippocampus in controlling EDA, see Sect. 1.3.4.1 “Subcortical Control of EDA".

  74. 74.

    The autonomic OR component is regarded as being elicited by “preattentive” mechanisms in Neisser’s (1967) sense.

  75. 75.

    Recorded as SR with standard methodology, using an additional abraded forearm site for grounding, transformed to SCRs, range-corrected with respect to the EDR following a 1 s, 100 dB white noise stimulus at the end of the experiment (Sect. 2.3.3.4 “Range Corrections”), and finally square-root transformed.

  76. 76.

    Recorded with standard methodology, detected by an analog computer using a slope criterion of 0.07 μS/s and an amplitude criterion of 0.3 μS.

  77. 77.

    There was no relationship between the occurrence of NS.SCRs and positive emotions, which points to the specificity of NS.EDRs as indicator for negative emotional states (Sect. 3.2.2.1).

  78. 78.

    Experiment 1 was performed with two independent groups (12 participants each of both genders), with vs. without omission in the 16th trial, either light-tone (1 kHz, 75 dB) or tone-light pairings as S1–S2. SCRs recorded with standard methodology were subjected to a range correction using a 100 dB stimulus at the end of the experiment to elicit a maximum SCR, and a square-root transformation.

  79. 79.

    Experiment 3 was performed with 48 participants, presenting light circles or tones as RT probes 1,300 ms following S2 omission and S2 re-presentation.

  80. 80.

    Similar stimulation and the same recording and evaluation techniques were applied as by Siddle and Packer (1987). A vibratory stimulus was used in addition to tone and light stimuli, all of them occurring equally often as S1, S2, and S3 in a Latin square design.

  81. 81.

    The various filter and channel capacity theories are summarized elsewhere (e.g., Broadbent, 1971; Massaro, 1975).

  82. 82.

    Recorded as SR (without reporting current density) with Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes and K–Y gel from fingertips of the left hand, transformed to square-root conductance values. SCR amplitudes were evaluated quantitatively within 1–3 s following each critical word, contrarily to the Corteen group, which used an all-or-none amplitude criterion of 1 kΩ for an EDR appearing within a 13 s window.

  83. 83.

    Recorded from the left hand’s fingers with 1 cm2 Ag/AgCl electrodes and K–Y gel, within 1–4 s following stimulus onset. Two successive intervals without an SCR exceeding 0.02 μS were used as the habituation criterion (Sect. 3.1.1.3).

  84. 84.

    Including a square-root transformation, using a time window within 1.0–3.05 s following stimulus onset, and an amplitude criterion of 0.008 μS.

  85. 85.

    Clear trials were those without probes presented from 2 s before OR stimulus onset until 2 s after its offset.

  86. 86.

    Auditory tasks were the same as in the first experiment of Dawson, Filion, and Schell (1989). All tones presented to the to-be-ignored ear were designated task-irrelevant stimuli, whereas all tones presented to the to-be-attended ear were designated task relevant, regardless of their length.

  87. 87.

    Recorded with standard methodology from thenar/hypothenar left-hand sites; differences between mean SCLs during the task and the preceding baseline period were used as response measure which was logarithmically transformed (Sect. 2.3.3.3).

  88. 88.

    Recorded with a method described by Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, and Lee (1999), though incompletely reported, from thenar/hypothenar sites. SCRs appearing between the end of the reward/punishment window and the next decisive mouse click (on average 10 s) were considered anticipatory, whereas SCRs being generated after turning cards were considered reward or punishment SCRs. After removing tonic SCL changes by a difference-based transformation, an area measurement (see Sect. 2.3.1.4) was calculated and expressed in microseconds per time interval.

  89. 89.

    Recorded with constant 0.5 V from 1 cm2 Ag/AgCl electrodes attached to the medial phalanges of the nondominant hand’s middle and index fingers. Artifacts stemming from gross respiratory maneuvers (Sect. 2.2.5.2) were eliminated by means of the respiration signal obtained from a temperature sensor placed under the nostrils.

  90. 90.

    Recorded as stated in Footnote 88.

  91. 91.

    Alcohol-, cocaine/crack-, or metamphetamine-dependent inpatients shortly before the completion of their rehabilitation; 25 females, 21 males.

  92. 92.

    Abnormal EDRs in connection with poor IGT performance have also been observed in a variety of neurological and psychiatric conditions, e.g., substance and alcohol addiction (Bechara & Damasio, 2002; Bechara et al., 2001, 2002; Fishbein et al. 2005), Huntington`s disease (Campbell, Stout, & Finn, 2004), multiple sclerosis, Parkinson`s disease (Sect. 3.5.4.2), and anorexia nervosa (Tchanturia et al., 2007).

  93. 93.

    A possible LTM-modulatory mechanism for emotion-eliciting events, which includes influences from the amygdala and from hormonal systems on hippocampus-dependent declarative memory storage, backed up by PET studies and discussions of ANS responses in general, was suggested by Cahill and McGaugh (1998).

  94. 94.

    Recorded as SR by the use of a Wheatstone bridge, presumably using AC, transformed into log SCR. Ag/AgCl electrodes, saturated with 3% NaCl solution, were screwed into the arm-rest of the participant’s chair, fitting to the palm of the right hand.

  95. 95.

    Recorded with standard methodology, but using Beckman miniature electrodes and K–Y gel, within 1–5 s following stimulus onset, using an amplitude criterion of 0.024 μS, and square-root transformed.

  96. 96.

    Method of recording not reported. A range correction was performed.

  97. 97.

    It is, however, questionable whether geometric figures are really typical for right-hemisphere processing, since cognitive representation of abstract material may be more prone to left-hemisphere processing.

  98. 98.

    Using dry, bright-plated electrodes attached to the fingers by means of Velcro strap.

  99. 99.

    It is recommended using the same values as for the amplitude criterion (Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Choice of Amplitude Criteria”).

  100. 100.

    Amplitude criteria were 0.02 μS for SCRs and 0.2 mV for SPRs (monophasic from the SPL or biphasic from peak to peak). Latencies for SCRs were 1–5 s, and for SPRs 700 ms to 5 s after stimulus onset.

  101. 101.

    Recorded as SR using standard methodology (except a current density as high as 20 μA/cm2) from the distal phalanges of two fingers of each hand, transformed into SC values. Unfortunately, the EDA values reported in the results section remain ambiguous with respect to their unit and magnitude. The tasks were visual-imagery (15 slides, 9 of them with sexual content, with subsequent imaging); verbal-analytic (series of words, from which those denoting numbers had to be selected for calculation); auditory; and light stimulation.

  102. 102.

    Recorded between the distal phalanges of two fingers from both hands using standard methodology.

  103. 103.

    Recorded from medial phalanges of both hands as SR with standard methodology, transformed to SC and square-root transformed.

  104. 104.

    Recorded from 5 male participants with two Fels dermohmeters using a constant current of 70 μA each, with zinc/zinc sulfate electrodes and electrode cream (unspecified). Electrode positions were the center of each palm and the midline of the chest. Separate measures of SRL and mean NS.SRR amp. were taken during resting and during a serial learning task (as an appreciable stressor) on each of 24 or 36 days.

  105. 105.

    Recorded during three consecutive nights as NS.SPRs with standard methodology and Beckman cream, however with an unusually low time constant of 0.6 s (Sect. 2.1.4). Monophasic and diphasic SPRs (Sect. 2.2.3.1) exceeding 0.2 mV in at least one of the two hands were evaluated; differences less than 0.1 mV between both hands were not considered.

  106. 106.

    Recorded as SR (9.66 μA/cm2) with Ag/AgCl cup electrodes and 0.05 molar NaCl cream from the pretreated (rubbing with isopropyl alcohol and drying) volar middle phalanges of the first and middle fingers of both hands, transformed to SC.

  107. 107.

    Recorded with 1 cm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with 0.05% KCl solution in agar.

  108. 108.

    Older results in the area of EDA and arousal are reported by Duffy (1972) and Raskin (1973). More recent descriptions of activational, attentional, and cognitive phenomena with respect to their physiological concomitants can be found in the second volume of the series edited by Gale and Edwards (1983). A methodologically oriented, strongly generalized presentation of psychophysiological paradigms is given by Fahrenberg (1988).

  109. 109.

    In these experiments, EDA was recorded as SR from the soles of the feet with 2 × 4 cm lead electrodes and K–Y gel from acetone cleaned sites.

  110. 110.

    Recorded with dry lead electrodes from palmar finger sites against the forearm. A bipolar parieto-occipital EEG was recorded in parallel to the SR measurement.

  111. 111.

    However, Haider (1969) did not use the NS.EDR freq. but slow SP changes as an indicator of tonic EDA.

  112. 112.

    Furthermore, considerations of a differentiated view of the role of the RF in the elicitation of EDA were made by Sharpless and Jasper (1956), which could complement the neurophysiological concepts of EDA origins described in Sect. 1.3.4.1, if confirmed empirically. Those authors regarded the caudal (deeper) structures as the neurophysiological correlates of tonic EDA, while the rostral (higher) components of the RF were regarded as mainly contributing to phasic EDA phenomena, which indicate orienting or attentional processes (Sects. 3.1.1.1 and 3.1.3).

  113. 113.

    Fundamentally different neuronal trigger mechanisms of cardiovascular and electrodermal responses were also found in experiments with rats by Roberts and Young (summarized by Roberts, 1974). In a series of investigations into the effect of aversive stimuli upon approach behavior, consistent connections between HR and physical movement of rats were observed, which decreased over the trials, while both the SC and the negative SP component showed an ascending progress during the course of the trials. Roberts (1974) could exclude all possibilities of a somatic coupling of EDA, as in, for example, overall muscular tension or breathing, and he therefore presumed motivational and/or attentional processes (Sect. 3.1.3) as causative factors in the increase of EDA.

  114. 114.

    In the 1971 revision of his theory, Routtenberg became more careful with respect to the neuroanatomical structures that may underlie his “System II,” relating it closer to motor components of behavior.

  115. 115.

    To avoid making Fig. 3.4 more complicated, the thalamic parts of these loops are left out. Later, Alexander, Crutcher, and DeLong (1990) added another circuit which they identified as “limbic,” since it connects certain portions of the basal ganglia with structures of the limbic system, including the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the entorhinal cortex, in a very similar manner as motor and premotor or (pre)frontal cortical areas in the other two loops (or circuits, as labeled by Alexander et al., 1990). Connections of these limbic structures with the basal ganglia were left out in Fig. 3.4, since their primary function is supposed to be coordinating somatomotor concomitants of emotion-related mimics and gestures.

  116. 116.

    The close connections of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic fibers to motor behavior via the basal ganglia matches well with the slightly changed view of Routtenberg (1971) concerning his “System II” (see Footnote 115).

  117. 117.

    More recently, the basolateral amygdala has been identified as acting upon the the central amygdala to very rapidly eliciting fear responses via its projections to the hippocampus and the brain stem, whereas projections from the basolateral amygdala to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis – together with those from the central amygdala – may be responsible for sustained fear responses, akin to anxiety (Heimer, Van Hoesen, Trimble, & Zahm, 2008). It is known from animal studies that the basolateral amygdala serves as input region, whereas the central amygdala plays a role in the mobilization of defensive behavior (Davis, 2000).

  118. 118.

    This is in accordance with Sokolov’s (1960) view of arousal within the OR (Sect. 3.1.1), insofar as an RF-mediated EEG desynchronization, together with hypothalamic ANS action patterns, being considered its concomitants.

  119. 119.

    From Latin cornu ammonis, which is another name for hippocampus. The hippocampus theta which is generated in the medial septal area, as already outlined by Routtenberg (1968), is transmitted to the CA3 field in the hippocampus to provide exact temporal information to the system. Gray (1982) suggested a feedback loop from the subiculum to the medial septal area, the anatomical confirmation of which is, however, lacking. Therefore it is not included in Fig. 3.4.

  120. 120.

    More recently, Gray and McNaughton (2000) made a distinction between fear, being mediated by the flight/fight freeze system, and anxiety, being mediated by the BAS.

  121. 121.

    Gray (1982) explained the anxiolytic properties of tranquilizers as well as hypnotics via their facilitating properties on the inhibitory action of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) on noradrenergic and serotonergic synaptic transmission. Tranquilizers of the benzodiazepine type act directly via a specific postsynaptic receptor, while hypnotics like barbiturates and alcohol act indirectly through a blockade of picrotoxine receptors, a substance which inhibits GABA.

  122. 122.

    Gray (1987, p. 226) pointed to the difference between his own and Panksepp’s (1982) view concerning fear and anxiety (Sect. 3.4.1.1), the latter identifying those largely with the activity of the fight/flight system, while Gray identified them with BAS activity.

  123. 123.

    Those neurons, which are not depicted in Fig. 3.4, receive afferent impulses from the medial hypothalamic decision center (Gray, 1987, p. 265).

  124. 124.

    Fowles (1988) reported data from a doctoral dissertation performed by Fisher in 1985, examining the effects of 10, 50, and 100% success using 20 participants per group. In contrast to a feedback-only condition, a monetary incentive condition, holding the amount of money earned constant across the different success groups, yielded significantly greater HRs regardless of the amount of success. On the other hand, NS.SCR freq. was significantly heightened in the 10% group as compared to the other ones, regardless of monetary incentive, which supports EDA not being influenced by appetitive motivational states during task performance. Sosnowski, Nurzynska, and Polec (1991) could not find an influence of manipulating monetary reinforcement on both HR and SCR amp. (recorded with standard methodology) in 60 student women randomly assigned to reward, frustration, and control groups performing a problem-solving task. Participants were run in pairs; the active participant solved the problem, being observed by the passive one. During the task, SCR amplitudes decreased significantly in active participants while being markedly increased in passive participants. The authors interpreted this result as being in accordance with Fowles’ EDA-BIS hypothesis since EDA was increased in what they called passive coping.

  125. 125.

    In her study comparing HR-reactive and HR-nonreactive participants under various stimulation conditions, Lawler (1980) found that HR reactivity being associated with minimal EDA, while HR nonreactive individuals showed more NS.SCRs.

  126. 126.

    Altogether, the BIS-EDA connection seems to be better established than the BAS-HR connection (see as an example, Gomez and McLaren’s (1997) study described in Sect. 3.1.2.2).

  127. 127.

    However, the postulated relationships were not always confirmed. Brenner, Beauchaine and Sylvers (2005) performed a study with 50 participants (28 females, 22 males) who were given different reward and nonreward conditions in sequence during a number-recognition task, while cardiovascular and electrodermal measures were recorded as markers for BIS/BAS activity. Unexpectedly, electrodermal reactivity was elevated not only during nonreward but also during reward. Furthermore, the proposed psychophysiological markers for BIS and BAS did not yield substantial correlations with a BIS/BAS questionnaire but only with subjective measures of affect.

  128. 128.

    This result is at variance with the Neumann (1968) findings described in Sect. 2.4.1.1 who obtained different SRL patterns in summer and in winter. There were also seasonal differences in EDA in the Mauritius study (Sect. 2.4.1.1), since Venables and Mitchell (1996) reported a significant interaction between gender and season, yielding a greater responsivity of females in hot weather.

  129. 129.

    However, in their review on the indicator function of EDA for arousal and emotion, Sequeira, Hot, Silvert, and Delplanque (2009) came to the conclusion that EDA might be used as a valid indicator for diurnal variations in emotional reactivity, which is not necessarily represented in subjective emotionality.

  130. 130.

    Unfortunately, for technical reasons such as electrode detachment, only 12 of the 24 participants (7 with the horror tape, 5 controls) could be included in the sleep evaluation. As could have been expected, tonic EDA increased during listening to the horror story compared to the boring story. No differences were found in HR.

  131. 131.

    Recorded with Ag/AgCl sponge electrodes from the fingers of the right hand with an “inert” electrolyte and 21 μA/cm2 for SR, and from the left middle finger to the scrubbed left forearm with Redux cream, and 1 s time constant, for SP. Amplitude criteria: 50 Ω and 100 μV (positive or negative), respectively.

  132. 132.

    Recorded with silver cup electrodes and an EEG electrode cream from acetone-cleaned sites, each pair having interelectrode distances of 5–6 cm. They were placed palmar/dorsal, at the dorsal forearm; and over the frontal, trapezius, deltoid, biceps, extensor digitorum, or other muscles, approximately along the neuraxis and peripheral nerves.

  133. 133.

    Recorded with Beckman electrodes, time constant 0.6 s, low-pass filtered with 15 Hz, amplitude criterion 200 μV. Results were log-transformed.

  134. 134.

    Pivik (1978) reported that individuals being asked to get more involved as usual in their own dreams showed an increase of EDA during sleep.

  135. 135.

    Recorded from comparable unipolar right and left sites (thenar against forearm) with Ag/AgCl sponge electrodes; amplitude criteria 200 μV and 100 Ω, respectively.

  136. 136.

    SRL and SRRs measured from different washed volar sites at two fingers, with Ag electrodes, 5 mm in diameter contact area. An AC-coupling circuit was used that resulted in biphasic SRRs.

  137. 137.

    DC-recorded thenar and dorsal against a skin-drilled forearm site with Ag/AgCl electrodes and 0.05 M NaCl agar-agar cream. Amplitude criterion for SPRs (negative, diphasic, and positive waves) was 250 μV.

  138. 138.

    Recorded from the left middle finger by Ag/AgCl electrodes, NaCl cream, and 10 μA/cm2 constant current. Amplitude criterion for NS.SRRs: 50 Ω.

  139. 139.

    Recorded with Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes as SR from the fingers of the right hand using 40 μA, and as SP between left index finger and forearm with 0.24 s time constant. A time window of 1–3 s following stimulus onset was used to determine EDR; SPR amp. measured as the total biphasic amplitude (Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Amplitudes of Endosomatic Responses”); SRR amp. being transformed to log SCR amp.

  140. 140.

     kHz, 30 dB tones presented over a loudspeaker for 45 s. Amplitude criteria: 125 Ω for SRRs and 100 mV for SPRs, within a time window of 1–5 s after stimulus onset.

  141. 141.

    Recorded between scrubbed volar forearm and thenar sites with a 0.3 s time constant. A 1 kHz, 1 s tone was presented over loudspeakers with 70 dB at the participant’s head, using three regular (10, 20, and 30 s) and three randomized irregular ISI conditions (8, 10, or 12; 16, 20, or 24; and 24, 30, or 36 s).

  142. 142.

     Hz, 75 dB, 1 or 2 s duration, at 30, 45, and 60 s ISIs. SRRs were obtained by dividing the prestimulus SRL by the maximum poststimulus resistance change occurring within 7 s after stimulus onset, log-transformed.

  143. 143.

    In a famous series of field studies, differences in time courses between electrodermal and subjective measures of stress had been obtained within nonlaboratory research with parachutists (for a summary, see Epstein, 1972). Whether or not psychophysiological dissociations during the course of anticipating stressful events will increase with the complexity of the stress situation should be further investigated. This requires combined laboratory/field studies in the area of stress research, which are also necessary to establish possible relationships between short-lasting psychophysiological stress effects and long-lasting changes.

  144. 144.

    With respect to the theories of the psychobiology of emotions in general, the reader is referred to appropriate comprehensive reviews (e.g., Grings & Dawson, 1978; Panksepp, 1986; Plutchik, 1980; Schwartz, 1986).

  145. 145.

    Recorded with 600 Hz, 1 V, using an RC bridge (Sect. 2.1.5) and metal electrodes with 1 cm diameter. SZR amp. were subjected to log transformation with respect to a suggested validity of Fechner’s law for EDR.

  146. 146.

    Recorded by the use of a 60 Hz AC and a bridge from volar finger surfaces, evaluated as SY, using 1 μS as amplitude criterion.

  147. 147.

    Uchiyama (1992) brought real-life situations in the laboratory for inducing the emotions fear, anger, and joy in 6 male participants. NS.SCR freq. (recorded with unreported methodology) was found to be higher in the fear situation (i.e., informing the participant that he would suffer from a heart disease) compared to the others.

  148. 148.

    Ax (1953) did not obtain measures of catecholamines but concluded that the ANS pattern under anger resembled the expected response to adrenaline and noradrenaline injections, while the ANS pattern under fear resembled the response in case adrenaline would have been injected.

  149. 149.

    Fear was induced by tape presentation of a fear-evoking short story being accompanied by an unannounced darkening of the room; anger was induced by presenting a series of anagrams developed by Boucsein and Frye (1974), most of which were unsolvable; however, the insoluble nature of the anagrams was not detected by the participants during their presentation; and pleasure was induced by positive reinforcement and the announcement of increased payment at the end of the study.

  150. 150.

    Recorded with standard methodology from the left hand’s fingers. To obtain an additional objective measure of the “forehead anxiety sweat,” another EDA recording was taken from the forehead. Electrodes were fixed by means of histoacryl (Sect. 2.2.2.1); the evaluation of EDA followed Thom’s (1988) method (Sect. 2.2.4.2).

  151. 151.

    A further domain is animal research about which Panksepp (1982, p. 410) stated that brain research in this area seems to regard the study of emotional expression as the only credible scientific approach.

  152. 152.

    As inferred from another article of the Lanzetta group (Kleck et al., 1976), EDA was probably recorded with 3.14 cm2 zinc electrodes using a zinc sulfate electrode cream and a Fels dermohmeter with 70 μA constant current. SRL values recorded from palmar sites were transformed to SCL values. The anticipatory EDR was computed as an increase from the average SCL 2 min before and at the beginning of shock application to the average SCL from 2 min before and at the beginning of the slide projection. The latter SCL was used as a reference for the EDR to shock application, thus being subtracted from the average SCL 6 and 8 min after its application.

  153. 153.

    The relationships between voluntarily expressed facial emotions and EDA (among other ANS variables) have been studied in 20 elderly individuals (71–83 years) of both genders by Levenson, Carstensen, Friesen, and Ekman (1991). The magnitude of ANS changes was smaller compared to young individuals.

  154. 154.

    EDA was recorded as SR via palmar Ag/AgCl electrodes, transformed into SC and individually standardized.

  155. 155.

    Gross and Levenson (1993) investigated the effect of suppressing emotional expression while watching a short disgusting film, using the SCL, various cardiovascular and respiratory measures, somatic activity, and eye blink frequency as psychophysiological indicators. Suppression reduced the expressive behavior in their 42 female and 43 male participants but did not reveal a clear-cut psychophysiological pattern. Interestingly, participants in the suppression condition showed significantly higher increases in SC than their nonsuppression counterparts, but also yielded significantly greater HR deceleration. This was interpreted by the authors as reflecting the possibility that voluntary suppression of facial disgust expressions may lead to greater physiological “disgust-like” responding (Gross & Levenson, 1993, p. 981). Gross (1998) proposed an antecedent- and response-focused model of emotion regulation based on the work of the Lazarus group reported in this section, which he supposed having beneficial consequences for health. For testing his model, Gross presented 120 participants (60 of each gender) stressful films. Among other measures, SCL was recorded during baseline, instructions, film presentation, and a postfilm period. After the first presentation of either a stress inducing or a neutral film, a second film was announced with the instruction to simply watch, reappraise, or suppress during the presentation (40 participants per group). As in the Gross and Levenson (1993) study, suppression increased SCL markedly, compared to both baseline recordings and the other two groups. The author concluded that the health-promoting mechanism suggested here might result from an increase of the classical sympathetic stress response which may in turn influence the course of immune responding.

  156. 156.

    Unipolar recordings with zinc electrodes and a zinc sulfate electrode cream from palmar against forearm sites, using a “low” constant current, thereafter transformed into SC values.

  157. 157.

    This social learning should have appeared early during life, since Buck (1977) found comparable negative correlations between SCR and communication accuracy even in preschoolers, giving nonverbal messages via spontaneous facial expressions and gestures to their mothers.

  158. 158.

    Gender differences in expressed emotions were observed by Kring and Gordon (1998) who presented 22 female and 21 male participants six brief emotion-inducing film clips (two of each: happy, sad, and fear), separated by neutral film segments. SC was recorded with standard methodology from the thenar eminence of the nondominant hand, and videotaped facial expressions were automatically coded. NS.SCR freq. was highest for fear in both genders, whereas females yielded higher values in the sad category than males, the reverse of which was found for happy film contents. The EDA results did not correspond to the evaluation of facial expressions.

  159. 159.

    With standard methodology, using K–Y gel. Mean SC change was calculated by subtracting the 1 s prestimulus average from the average between 2 and 7 s after stimulus onset.

  160. 160.

    Recorded with standard methodology from distilled water-cleaned medial phalanges of the third and fourth fingers of the right hand. SCR amp. were obtained 1–4 s after stimulus onset with an amplitude criterion of 0.05 μS.

  161. 161.

    It is not obvious that surprise does predominantly elicit positive emotions. If strong enough, it may as well elicit a DR which is normally negatively tuned (Sect. 3.1.1.2).

  162. 162.

    Combining EDA with fMRI recordings, which has been recently available (Sect. 2.2.3.5), together with mathematical solutions for the evaluation of overlapping EDRs, constitutes an intriguing new possibility of research into CNS correlates of processing emotion-expressing faces. This had been demonstrated by Williams et al. (2004) in their study described in Sect. 2.3.1.5. Their fMRI data revealed that the U-shaped SCR pattern across early, middle, and late presentations of face stimuli expressing fear was paralleled by a temporal sequence of somatosensory insula, dorsomedial prefrontal cortical, and left amygdalar activation.

  163. 163.

    Ekman et al. (1985) in an experiment on startle simulation and suppression revealed that startle should be considered a reflex rather than an emotion. To the present author’s view, the widely used paradigm of startle response modification by manipulations of the emotional background might be regarded as a sideline in emotion research which concentrates on a single dependent measure. Revealing its contribution to the core of psychophysiological research into emotional states may require further theoretical integration.

  164. 164.

    An attempt to determine an individual’s most reactive ANS channel (i.e., EDA or HR) was made by Levis and Smith (1987), using the balloon-burst test to preclassify their participants as high SC responders, high HR responders, high responders in both channels, or low responders in both channels. In a subsequent presentation of a fear-eliciting slide (a man who died in an accident), those participants found to be high responders on a given channel showed greater reactivity on that particular channel as compared to low responders.

  165. 165.

    Seligman (1975), in an explorative study with 6 participants, obtained differential effects of pleasant and released vs. unpleasant and inhibited feelings (as reported on a Mood Adjective Check List) on negative vs. positive SPR waves, respectively, during ten counseling sessions of 50 min duration each. However, Edelberg (1972a) already pointed to results with respect to the emotional valence of different SP wave forms being equivocal in general.

  166. 166.

    Recorded with a Fels dermohmeter and 70 μA current, by means of zinc/zinc sulfate electrodes (cream not mentioned), transformed into SC units.

  167. 167.

    Bilateral thenar recording as SR with Beckman electrodes of 1 cm diameter, 10 μA constant current, transformed to SC values.

  168. 168.

    Recorded with 10 μA constant current from thenar/hypothenar sites, using Ag/AgCl electrodes of 1 cm diameter with K–Y gel, amplitude criterion 80 Ω. Responses in 10-s intervals were averaged and transformed to log SC.

  169. 169.

    Recorded with Ag/AgCl sponge electrodes (other details of recording not reported) as SRL values, averaged for every 10 s and transformed to SCL values.

  170. 170.

    Crude surgeries on the male genitals of a primitive native culture in Australia. EDA has been recorded from both hands as SR with zinc electrodes of 2 cm diameter, using an agar–zinc electrode cream and a 40 μA constant current. SR values were transformed to log SC changes (differences between pre- and postaccident SCLs).

  171. 171.

    A phylogenetically oriented approach into the psychophysiological responses to film stimuli has been performed by Westbury and Neumann (2008) with 73 participants (37 females, 36 males). Four 10-min clips for each of five target groups (depicting humans, primates, quadruped mammals, and birds in victimized circumstances) were presented in randomized order. Participants were asked to rate their empathy, SC (recorded according to some of the standards, but with “surgicon” electrolyte paste), respiration and corrugator muscle activity were recorded. SCRs were obtained as trough-to-peak distance within 1–4 s after the film presentations and square-root transformed (Sect. 2.3.3.3). Both SCRs and empathy ratings increased with phylogenetic similarity to humans across animal groups, being highest in the films showing human victims.

  172. 172.

    Recorded as SR with dry 2 cm2 lead electrodes from previously acetone-cleaned finger sites, transformed to values of μS/cm2.

  173. 173.

    Measured unipolar from left middle finger against forearm sites with electrodes (metal not specified) of 0.32 cm2 and 3 × 4 in., respectively, starch cream and 20 μA constant current. 100 Ω were used as amplitude criterion.

  174. 174.

    Recorded unipolar thenar vs. forearm with 5 and 58 cm2 Ag/AgCl electrodes, respectively, filled with 0.5 M NaCl (probably liquid) electrolyte, using a current of 10 μA/cm2. Amplitude criterion for NS.SRRs was 100 Ω.

  175. 175.

    Measured with Ag/AgCl electrodes of 4 mm diameter, KCl cream (0.67 M) in agar, and 0.5 V, evaluated as log SC change from pretreatment level.

  176. 176.

    Recorded as SR with 10 μA constant current, Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes, and K–Y gel palmar/dorsal. Separate channels were used for SRL and SRRs (sensitivity 50 Ω). SRL values were transformed to SCL, and SCRs were computed as differences between logarithmized SCLs before and the maximum within 6 s after stimulus onset.

  177. 177.

    Recorded as SR between palm and forearm with Beckman electrodes and cream, transformed to square-root SCR. Time window for SCRs: 0.5–3 s after stimulus onset; amplitude criterion for NS.SRR freq.: 200 Ω.

  178. 178.

    This could be shown by Overmier (1985) with animals, using completely different experimental conditions and plasma cortisol as stress indicator.

  179. 179.

    Recorded palmar with Ag/AgCl electrodes and 10 μA constant current, transformed to SC. No information was provided concerning electrode size, cream, and amplitude criterion for SCRs.

  180. 180.

    The term “strain” comes from physics, where strain is used for the response of a system being under stress.

  181. 181.

    Recorded with Ag/AgCl electrodes of 6 mm diameter from previously washed sites on the medial phalanges of the index finger and thumb of the nondominant hand with hypoallergenic gel and a CC below 0.5 V.

  182. 182.

    See also the Dindo and Fowles (2008) study which is described in Sect. 3.1.1.1.

  183. 183.

    Eysenck discussed his inhibition concept with respect to Pavlov’s “transmarginal inhibition” or “protective inhibition,” the neurophysiology of which he regarded as unrealistic, though the phenomenon itself (which is also in accordance with the so-called Yerkes–Dodson law, and the inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance; see Sect. 3.2.1.1) has been frequently observed (Eysenck, 1983, p. 18). However, Eysenck’s attempt to include different aspects of inhibition into a unitary CNS inhibition concept may have contributed to various differences between theoretical concepts and experimental results (Nebylitsyn, 1972, p. 21; Strelau, 1983, p. 145), thus being in part responsible for pitfalls in establishing reliable psychophysiological correlates of extraversion/introversion.

  184. 184.

    Recorded with zinc electrodes of 25 mm diameter and 1% zinc sulfate cream, current density not reported.

  185. 185.

    Recorded with 2 cm2 Ag/AgCl electrodes, 0.5% KCl in Unibase, and 1.0 V constant current.

  186. 186.

    Recorded with Ag/AgCl electrodes of 1 cm diameter, 0.05M NaCl cream, and 9.55 μA/cm2 current density; SR values transformed into SC values. SCLs and SCRs were obtained at the beginning and after each test stimulus. SCR amp. were square-root transformed and range-corrected.

  187. 187.

    Indirect support comes from an investigation of Wilson (1990) with 61 male and 50 female participants who self-recorded their SCL throughout a whole working day. The recording device featured dry electrodes being not fixed to the skin which constituted a somehow instable methodology. By applying various questionnaire measures, Wilson came to the conclusion that sociability, rather than impulsivity, seemed to have been the component of extraversion responsible for individual variations in the diurnal SCL curve.

  188. 188.

    Recorded with standard Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes and Beckman cream from the left palm, using 20 μA/cm2 as current density and 100 Ω as an amplitude criterion.

  189. 189.

    Such a contrary to classic expectation of greater electrodermal reactivity of low trait anxious compared to high trait anxious individuals has, under conditions of relatively low stress, been more recently confirmed by Wilken, Smith, Tola, and Mann (2000) and by Naveteur, Buisine, and Gruzelier (2005). Wilken et al. tried to explain their observation with the inverted-U-shaped relationship between general arousal and behavioral outcomes (Sect. 3.2.1.1). Trait anxious participants might have come to their experiment with higher arousal than their low anxious counterparts, thus reaching the peak of the inverted-U arousal curve earlier. It remains, however, unclear why EDA as a direct measure of general arousal should decrease with a further increase of arousal after this peak. Their alternative interpretation with respect to the LIV (Sect. 2.5.4) seems to be more appropriate here.

  190. 190.

    Individual ANS reactivity was obtained by using the higher of either HR or EDA standardized scores. However, since EDA was used in all six studies but not HR, individual reactivity might have been mainly expressed within the electrodermal system. EDA was recorded in all studies as SR by means of a Fels dermohmeter with a constant current of 70 μA across palmar zinc/zinc sulfate electrodes with 2 cm diameter.

  191. 191.

    Recorded with 16 mm Ag/AgCl electrodes and 0.05 M NaCl in Unibase from the palms. Amplitude criterion: 100 Ω. Reaction scores were corrected for artifact-free baselines.

  192. 192.

    Recorded as SR with Ag/AgCl electrodes from the medial phalanges of the index and middle fingers of the nondominant hand with 8 μA CC, transformed into SC, amplitude criterion 0.02 μS.

  193. 193.

    The authors performed unusual SR recordings with an active palmar and an inactive forearm electrode, Beckman standard electrodes and cream, and 20 μA constant current. SR scores were transformed to SC, and SCR amplitudes were square-root transformed.

  194. 194.

    Recorded as SR with Ag/AgCl electrodes and NaCl electrode cream from Beckman, unipolar palmar against forearm, using 20 μA/cm2 current, performing transformation to SC and logarithmization. The amplitude criterion for NS.EDRs during the resting condition was 100 Ω.

  195. 195.

    Measured with nonpolarizing Ag/AgCl sponge electrodes between the palm and an alcohol-cleaned forearm site, AC-coupling (Sect. 2.1.3) with 0.45 s time constant, and an amplitude criterion of 0.1 mV. Several fluctuations within a 6 s window were regarded as a single SPR.

  196. 196.

    For reliabilities of frequencies and mean amplitudes of NS.EDRs, see sections 2.5.2.1 under “Tonic Skin Conductance Measures” and 2.5.2.2 under “Tonic Skin Resistance Measures”.

  197. 197.

    NS.SCRs were recorded with standard methodology using a Wheatstone bridge (Sect. 2.1.3) during 40 s after a 5 min relaxation period, using an amplitude criterion of 0.05 μS (Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Choice of Amplitude Criteria”).

  198. 198.

    SR recorded palmar against a forearm site with 2 cm2 Ag/AgCl electrodes, Beckman cream, and 10 μA/cm2 constant current. Amplitude criterion: 100 Ω.

  199. 199.

    SCRs were recorded with standard methodology and an amplitude criterion of 0.02 μS during a 5 min period of no stimulation.

  200. 200.

    The possibility of electrodermal lability in adolescence being a protective factor against criminal behavior during adulthood since it prevents underarousal has been discussed by Raine, Venables, and Williams (1995); see also Sect. 3.4.1.2. As a possible explanation, Crider (2008) suggested an increased amount of self-control of emotional behavior in electrodermal labiles, which would be in line with his effortful control hypothesis.

  201. 201.

    Crider (1993) stated that the temporal stability of electrodermal lability measures is somewhat lower than usually demanded of measures for individual differences.

  202. 202.

    Typical applications of EDA within therapeutic techniques used in psychopathology can also be found in biofeedback (Sect. 3.1.2.3) and in systematic densitization (summarized by Katkin & Deitz, 1973).

  203. 203.

    Lader and Wing’s research had been continued by Chattopadhyay and co-workers Chattopadhyay, 1981; Chattopadhyay et al., 1975, 1980, 1982, 1983.

  204. 204.

    Recorded with 10 μA CC using lead electrodes, filled with 0.05 M NaCl cream, from the distal phalanx of the right thumb against an inactive (rubbed) site on the lateral aspect of the arm above the elbow. SR was converted to log SC, and an SCR of 0.003 log μS was used as amplitude criterion (Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Choice of Amplitude Criteria”).

  205. 205.

    Possibly the small difference in amplitude criteria, 0.002 log μS used by Hart (1974) vs. 0.003 log μS used by Lader and Wing (1964), may also have contributed to that difference (Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Choice of Amplitude Criteria”).

  206. 206.

    With standard methodology from two electrodes adjacently placed to the participant’s right-hand hypothenar eminence, with a resolution of 0.001 μS, a sampling rate of 10 Hz, scored as SCL difference between the mean during the 3 s picture viewing and a baseline, log-transformed and range-corrected (Sects. 2.3.3.4 “Range Corrections” and “Transformation into Standard Values”).

  207. 207.

    Recorded from the middle phalanges of digits 3 and 4 of the left hand with disposable Ag/AgCl electrodes of 2 cm2 contact area and an isotonic electrode cream, using 0.5 V constant voltage and a 6 Hz sampling rate. The SCL was controlled for drift due to progressive skin moistening and/or maceration (Sect. 2.2.6.1) by simultaneous application of new electrodes after the flight. No adjustment was made since the SCL downward drift did not exceed 8.2% on average. Artifacts were removed during the interactive signal evaluation (Sect. 2.3.4.1).

  208. 208.

    Recorded with standard methodology from the middle phalanges of digits 3 and 4 with 2 cm2 disposable Ag/AgCl electrodes. Amplitude criterion 0.02 μS.

  209. 209.

    SRL, NS.SCR amp., and mean habituation rate discriminated between patients having anxiety disorders with and without panic attacks (Birket-Smith, Hasle, & Jensen, 1993). During anticipation of delivering a speech and other stressors, patients with panic disorders showed substantially higher SCLs and NS.SCRs compared to healthy controls (Braune, Albus, Fröhler, Höhn, & Scheibe, 1994). Compared to healthy controls, panic patients yielded significantly higher NS.SCR freq. during a series of performance tests (Dratcu & Bond, 1998).

  210. 210.

    Another anxiety-related disorder in which EDA has been used for probing conditioning is posttraumatic stress disease (e.g., Orr et al., 2006).

  211. 211.

    Since SCL data were not collected for 16 participants during their diagnosis and subsequent treatment, the results are based only on 31 participants. The recording method was not explicitly mentioned.

  212. 212.

    Recorded with CV of about 0.5 V, using gold-plated dry electrodes attached by plastic tape to the first and third finger of the right hand. The volar finger sites were soap-washed, dried, and alcohol cleaned prior to attachment.

  213. 213.

    SCR amp. was obtained as difference between the SCL at the peak and the SCL immediately before SCR onset.

  214. 214.

    Recorded with 7 mm diameter zinc electrodes and zinc sulfate electrolyte, using a Wheatstone bridge. The polarity of the 1.5 V reference was reversed every 1.2 s.

  215. 215.

    Bilateral recordings with Ag/AgCl electrodes of 4.5 mm diameter, filled with 0.5% KCl in agar-agar cream, using 0.5 V constant voltage. Amplitude criterion: 0.05 μS.

  216. 216.

    Although schizophrenia has been the domain for electrodermal nonresponding, this phenomenon is clearly not specific to schizophrenia (Iacono, 1985; see Sect. 3.4.2.2). Raine, Bihrle, Venables, Mednick, and Pollock (1999) assessed SC-OR and schizotypy in 134 males during adolescence. Criminal offending and alcohol abuse were assessed 12 years later. Schizotypic individuals who became criminals had been characterized by deficits in ED-OR during adolescence.

  217. 217.

    The term “recovery rate” used in this context does not correspond to the same term used for recovery speed, which is the reciprocal of EDR recovery time (see sections 2.3.1.3 under “Recovery Parameters” and 2.3.3.3).

  218. 218.

    EDA was recorded with Ag/AgCl electrodes of 9 mm diameter with 0.9% NaCl cream from sites of the left hand’s second and third finger, prior cleaned with an ethanol (75%)/acetone (25%) mixture. The authors used a combined current density (9 μA/cm2)/voltage (2.7 V) limiting system. If necessary, the SCR rec.t/2 values were extrapolated by the method of curve matching (Sect. 2.3.1.3 “Recovery Parameters”). Since the mean recovery time of the EDR to the first tone was conspicuously longer than those following the other tones, the latter ones were averaged, and analyses were performed separately for the first recovery and the mean of the others. The amplitude criterion for NS.SCRs was 0.0043 log μS.

  219. 219.

    Lower electrodermal activity/responsivity was also demonstrated in disruptive children (van Goozen, Matthys, Cohen-Kettenis, Buitelaar, & van Engeland, 2000) and for boys with conduct disorder (Herpertz et al., 2005).

  220. 220.

    Recorded bilaterally from the medial phalanges of the second and third fingers with 0.45 cm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes and 0.5% potassium chloride in 2% agar-agar as electrolyte. Amplitude criterion 0.05 μS.

  221. 221.

    The independence of this sample from the one used by Raine et al. (1990a) remains unclear.

  222. 222.

    Such a motivational imbalance was also mentioned as a key factor in psychopathy by Arnett (1997) in his review on ANS responsivity in psychopaths.

  223. 223.

    Fung et al. (2005) observed reduced anticipatory SCRs in 65 psychopathy-prone 16-year-old males compared to 65 controls, demonstrating that the anticipatory electrodermal hyporesponsivity of psychopathic adults is an ANS impairment which may be already present in adolescents and could predispose individuals to adult psychopathy.

  224. 224.

    Damasio, Tranel, and Damasio (1990) observed reduced EDA to social stimuli in 5 patients with sociopathic behavior who had lesions in the VMPFC (Sect. 3.1.3.3), in comparison to six brain-damaged and five normal controls who had no diagnosis of sociopathy. In a study combining fMRI with EDA, Raine, Lencz, Bihrle, LaCasse, and Colletti (2000) found both damage to gray and white matter in the prefrontal cortex plus lowered SC under stress compared to healthy controls in 21 male neurological patients who developed a pseudopsychopathic personality, thus relating subtle structural deficits in the prefrontal cortex to antisocial behavior and electrodermal hyporeactivity.

  225. 225.

    Recorded as SR with a constant current of 6.4 μA/cm2, using Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with K–Y gel. Recordings were performed during 5 min of resting, a free word-association test, stimulation with tones and bells of moderate intensity, a differential classical conditioning, and an RT task. EDA was expressed in terms of SC parameters.

  226. 226.

    As an exception, EDA has also been found to be higher in depressive patients than in controls. In a study with 18 patients suffering from major depression (9 of each gender), who had not taken any medication for at least 10 days, and 18 controls (6 females, 12 males), Guinjoan, Bernabó, and Cardinali (1995) reported significantly higher NS.SPR amp. in patients while raising from lying to standing and during handgrip exercise, but not during other exercises such as hyperventilation, cold pressor test, and mental arithmetic. The authors interpreted their results being due to an altered sympathetic/parasympathetic balance in depressives.

  227. 227.

    Recorded with 9.5 mm diameter double-element lead electrodes unipolarly (abraded arm site above the elbow vs. thumb), using a 0.05 M NaCl electrolyte and 14 μA/cm2 constant current.

  228. 228.

     kHz, 1 s tones of either 85 or 105 dB; 10 and 12 stimuli, respectively; ISI 20–40 s. SC was recorded bilaterally with standard methodology; SCL measured immediately before each tone and averaged; SCR was obtained within 1–3 s after stimulus onset, with an amplitude criterion of 0.05 μS.

  229. 229.

    Recorded with 0.5 V CC and transformed to in μS/cm2.

  230. 230.

    The type of EDA was not specified; 8 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with conductive cream were attached to the medial phalanges of both index and middle fingers.

  231. 231.

    Recorded with 7 mm diameter zinc electrodes, sponges saturated in zinc sulfate solution used as electrolyte, sites washed and cleaned with alcohol.

  232. 232.

    Venables (1983) mentioned several critical points in the investigations of the Mednick group. First, the ISIs in their classical conditioning paradigm may have been too short to allow separation of the different kinds of EDRs with respect to their latencies (Sect. 3.1.2.1). Second, the differences found in SCR lat. may have been confounded with different absolute auditory thresholds for different frequency ranges, as can be observed in schizophrenics.

  233. 233.

    Mednick (1978) pointed to different selection procedures: the New York study excluded individuals from nonintact families, while the Copenhagen study did not.

  234. 234.

    Patterson (1976) detected 11 nonresponders (Sect. 3.4.2.2) among 31 male chronic schizophrenics. The remaining 20 participants showed a bimodal distribution with respect to SCR rec.t/2, and the fast recovery participants showed significantly slower pupillary constriction in the light/dark reflex as compared to the slow recovery participants, which was discussed by the author as possibly due to a greater adrenergic outflow in the first group. In addition, these results also question the generalizability of the results that shorter EDR recoveries appear in schizophrenics.

  235. 235.

    As can be inferred from other publications of the Zahn group, zinc/zinc sulfate electrodes with 0.79 cm2 area were attached to palmar sites.

  236. 236.

    It could be further speculated that different EDA parameters are related to different pathogenetic factors. Cannon et al. (1988), using a subsample from the Copenhagen study, found that individuals with enlarged third ventricles (which may point to hypothalamic and/or amygdalar deficits) showed significant overall reductions in EDR amp. and in percentage of EDRs observed during OR and conditioning trials (see also Sect. 3.4.2.2).

  237. 237.

    About 3 years after the Copenhagen study, an Israeli high-risk study started with 100 children at an average age of 11 years, half of them being offspring from schizophrenic parents, the other half not. All were subjected to an SC-OR paradigm. At about 26 years of age, 90 participants were reevaluated, 27 of whom (mostly from the high-risk group) were diagnosed as schizophrenic according to DSM-III. Results of the differences in SC-ORs between the groups and additional results from an investigation of the children at the age of 16 were reported by Kugelmass et al. (1995). To-become schizophrenics had significantly higher anxiety ratings at age 16 than the nondiagnosed participants. Unexpectedly, the children with the most pronounced electrodermal hyporesponsiveness at age 16 were especially prone to receive an affective disorder diagnosis with the age of 25, which confirms that electrodermal hyporesponsiveness is not specific for developing a schizophrenic disease (Sect. 3.4.1.3).

  238. 238.

    Note that for purposes of transforming SCR amp. into SRR amp. and vice versa, SCLs and SRLs are required (Sect. 2.3.3.2).

  239. 239.

    Data for the two-trial habituation criterion were also analyzed, yielding similar results.

  240. 240.

    Results on habituation speed are largely dependent on the method used (Sect. 3.1.1.3). The trials-to-habituation criterion disregards initial amplitude differences, thus bearing the danger of misclassifying individuals showing a high amplitude to the first stimulus with subsequent borderline but not below-criterion EDRs as slow habituators. Zahn et al. (1968, 1981a) who defined habituation in terms of the EDR amp. decline relative to the trial block with the largest mean EDR amp. found schizophrenics to be slower habituators than normals.

  241. 241.

    At variance with these results are those of Schnur et al. (1989) who found significantly wider third ventricles (by means of computer tomography) in nine schizophrenic responders as compared to 15 nonresponders (SCRs and fingerpulse responses to three 60 dB, 1 kHz tones).

  242. 242.

    In a pilot study with few participants, Hazlett, Dawson, Buchsbaum, and Nuechterlein (1993) found that EDA nonresponders had significantly lower metabolic rates in medial frontal areas, in the hippocampus, and in the amygdala, i.e., in areas that are suggested being involved in generating EDA (Sect. 1.3.4.1).

  243. 243.

    Recorded in a series of 15 tones (1 kHz, 70 dB) with standard methodology, using a time window of 0.5–4 s after stimulus onset (Olbrich & Mussgay, 1987).

  244. 244.

    A possible expansion of experimental possibilities for investigating electrodermal hypo- or hyperresponsivity in schizophrenics as compared to normal controls had been demonstrated by Lim et al. (1999b), using Lim et al.’s (1997) mathematical solution for evaluating overlapping EDRs during short-ISI paradigms, which also offers a possibility to combine EDA with ERP recordings (e.g., Roth, Goodale, & Pfefferbaum, 1991). In comparison with 50 normal controls, their 30 medicated schizophrenics showed a reduced SC-OR response rate, reduced proportion of responders, SCR amp., rise time, peak latency, and steady-state response amplitude during the presentation of 40 tones with ISIs down to about 2.5 s, but no group differences in SCR lat. or SCL emerged.

  245. 245.

    Schell, Dawson, Nuechterlein, Subotnik, and Ventura (2002) investigated the 1-year temporal stability (reliability) of electrodermal measures in 71 young, recent-onset, drug-treated schizophrenics and 36 demographically matched controls (18 and 28% females, respectively) with the methodology used by Dawson et al. (1994). Reliabilities were significant for most EDA variables but generally lower in schizophrenics as in controls, which may be attributable to poorer general arousal regulation (Sect. 3.2.1.1) in patients.

  246. 246.

    It had been discussed in Sect. 3.4.1.3 that depressive patients tend to show the reverse pattern (Venables, 1983). However, Iacono, and Tuason (1983) could not find consistent bilateral asymmetries in EDA in a 1-year follow-up with 26 unipolar and 24 bipolar depressives.

  247. 247.

    Measured as SCRs occurring between 0.8 and 5 s after stimulus onset, exceeding a 1 mm criterion with a maximum gain setting of 0.02 μS/cm.

  248. 248.

    The speech anxiety paradigm used here was a very realistic extension of the one used by Boucsein and Wendt-Suhl (1980). A group of so-called speech experts was presented to the participant on a video screen, which was “joined” by the female experimenter (who could be seen from her back being in front of the group, which required her to always wear the same white collar and hair style throughout the whole study) who presented (over an auditory mixing device) the personal data of the actual participant who prepared the speech.

  249. 249.

    Measured with a 10 Hz and 0.5 V constant voltage system, using dry electrodes made from silver-plated nylon tissue (3.2 cm2 area), taken from palmar finger sites, and monitored telemetrically.

  250. 250.

    Recorded with nonpolarizing electrodes palmar/dorsal from the left hand, amplified by an EEG coupler. The number of SPRs was individually related to productivity, to reduce interindividual differences.

  251. 251.

    Measured with 500 Hz, 1, and 10 kHz with constant voltage (1 V) (SYL transformed to SZL) using 3 × 4 cm V2A nets as electrodes at the backside of the lower legs while working at a punch press, and at the lower arm’s inside during bicycle ergometer task (performed ten times each with 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 mkp/s, and six times with 25 mkp/s, with 7.5 min duration).

  252. 252.

    The highest amount of EDA was, however, recorded during speaking, which must be regarded as being mainly due to an artifact (Sect. 2.2.5.2).

  253. 253.

    Measured five times successively at 2-s intervals with 10 mA constant current, from the first and second fingers of the left hand, using 1 cm2 aluminium electrodes.

  254. 254.

    Recorded from the left little finger with nonreported methodology.

  255. 255.

    In all studies of the present author’s group, SC was measured with standard methodology.

  256. 256.

    However, caution has to be expressed with artifacts stemming from gross body movements. Goldstein and Shapiro (1988) found that cardiovascular parameters are more sensitive to postural changes during laboratory performance tests (mental arithmetic and isometric handgrip) than EDA. In addition, there was a marked increase in SCL as a transient response during standing up.

  257. 257.

    With stainless steel electrodes, covered with isotonic cream made from Unibase and attached to the right index and the middle finger.

  258. 258.

    Measured with AC from the left hand’s fingers, using a Wheatstone bridge.

  259. 259.

    Recorded with AC (65 Hz), using 10 μA/cm2 average current density, from the participant’s fingers, data transformed into conductance changes.

  260. 260.

    Recorded volar/dorsal from the left foot with 1 cm diameter electrodes filled with a cream from bentonite, glycerine, and Ringer’s salt solution, using a constant current of 5 μA/cm2 and a Wheatstone bridge.

  261. 261.

    Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes and electrode cream with 0.1N chloride concentration were used to record from the dorsal side of the hand with 12 μA/cm2 constant current. For evaluation, psychophysiological responses were time-shifted 1 s earlier, in to compensate for the time delay associated with EDRs.

  262. 262.

    AC recordings with a 5.25 Hz constant voltage (1 V) source between two Ag/AgCl electrodes, filled with Hellige isotonic electrode cream, attached according to Fig. 2.7 (Sect. 2.2.1.1) to the medial side of the left foot. EDA was recorded on tape with PCM (pulse code modulation) electronics. EDRs were classified into four groups: more than 10, 8–10, 5–7, and 2–4% change with respect to EDL, forming arbitrary units that were averaged per minute.

  263. 263.

    Recorded with standard methodology from the left foot according to Fig. 2.7 with a sampling rate of 20 Hz, evaluated as SCL and as NS.SCR freq. by means of a spline curve for detecting single responses, using an amplitude criterion of 0.05 μS.

  264. 264.

    With Ag/AgCl electrodes, low-pass filtering of 3 and 10 Hz sampling frequency. The amplitude criterion was set to 1 mV.

  265. 265.

    Measured at two sites: At the first and middle finger of the left hand and at the arch of the left foot, with unreported methodology, sampled at 31 Hz.

  266. 266.

    Measured with Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes and Beckman cream from palmar/dorsal sites with 0.5 V constant voltage. The highest SCR amp. within every 5-s section was evaluated.

  267. 267.

    In fact, the attachment of EDA electrodes being visible for everyone raises problems of compliance in pilots, which may explain some of its infrequent use in that field.

  268. 268.

    Recorded with AC from the ankle, using the methodology of Faber (1983).

  269. 269.

    Ag/AgCl electrodes placed on the arch of the right foot, 3.2 cm apart, filled with Grass EC33 electrode cream. EDA was recorded as SC with the Vitaport 2 ambulatory monitoring device (Sect. 2.2.3.4), together with the other measures.

  270. 270.

    Measured with a custom-made digital recorder with constant voltage across a pair of nickel electrodes attached to the volar surface of the third digit, with the output transformed to SR and recorded as mean SRL for 1 s intervals.

  271. 271.

    Recorded as SC by the Varioport System with standard methodology from the left foot (Fig. 2.7) with a special fixation technique described at the end of Sect. 2.2.2.1.

  272. 272.

    Recorded from the dorsal side of one hand by small suction cap electrodes, using a nonspecified psychogalvanometer.

  273. 273.

    Obtained with standard methodology, 0.01 μS amplitude criterion; overlapping SCRs treated according to evaluation method B, Fig. 2.16, Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Amplitudes of Exosomatic Responses Recorded with Direct Current”.

  274. 274.

    Measured as SR with “a small electric current of constant intensity” from nonspecified palmar electrodes.

  275. 275.

    With Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with 0.5% NaCl electrode cream and 0.4 V constant voltage from the nondominant hand’s palmar sites.

  276. 276.

    In this and the following studies, EDA was recorded with standard methodology.

  277. 277.

    The US Congress enacted the 1988 Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) to curtail among other things, abuses reported as a result of the widespread use of the polygraph. Problems observed prior to EPPA included poorly standardized and unregulated field practices, and inadequately standardized training for field practitioners, and included cost-cutting and other competitive marketing efforts that led to the proliferation of “chart-rolling” practices which included the conduct of numerous short and unreliable examinations. Foremost among those problems was the selection of examination targets with unproven contribution to the desired outcomes of employee training success and employee integrity. Despite the restriction imposed by EPPA, there are remaining provisions that allow for government and public safety pre-employment polygraph screening, in addition to potential screening for employees in pharmaceutical and nuclear energy industries.

  278. 278.

    A comparison of the estimated number of polygraph examiners was provided by Barland (1988, Table 7.1).

  279. 279.

    The author thanks Mark Handler for his contributions to this section, especially to its polygraph-related part.

  280. 280.

    The abbreviation CQT was introduced initially for “Control Question Test.” However, the term “control” has been replaced by “comparison” in modern polygraph use, since the term control as used in the original CQT did not meet its standard scientific sense. Control questions could only be accepted as an experimental control if they were comparable to the critical questions in all respects except for the process of deception that is under investigation (for more details, see Furedy & Ben-Shakhar, 1991).

  281. 281.

    Despite this putative superiority of the GKT over the CQT, the practical problem arises that the GKT requires the details of the crime to be used in the test having to be kept secret in the public, which may run counter to normal police procedures; this is regarded as a major reason for its infrequent use by polygraphers (Furedy & Heslegrave, 1988).

  282. 282.

    Taken from an U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment Report in 1983. Steller (1987) summarized results from laboratory studies, 11 performed with the CQT, and seven with the GKT. According to these, the CQT correctly classified 15.8–90% of the innocent examinees, with false positives ranging from 4.2 to 31.6%. On the other hand, five of the GKT studies made 100% correct classifications, the remaining two studies yielding 88% correct innocents and 12% false positives. With respect to correct classifications of guilty examinees, both methods did not differ considerably (between 60 and 100% correct classifications).

  283. 283.

    In pre- or postemployment screening situations, a slightly different question format is employed, labeled the Relevant Control Test by Lykken (1981).

  284. 284.

    In addition to various proofs of EDA being the most sensitive measure for the detection of deception in comparison with others, as found for example by Dawson (1980) in his study described below (comparing EDA with cardiovascular and respiratory measures), a comparison of an univariate with a multivariate statistical evaluation of CQT data performed by Kircher and Raskin (1988) also yielded a superiority of SCR amp. over blood pressure, respiratory, and vasomotor responses with both methods of evaluation.

  285. 285.

    The ease of detecting psychophysiological correlates of emotion-relevant thoughts by phasic EDA is also used in obscure religious practice, where then so-called E-meters (simple SR monitoring devices) are used as a “scientific” tool to uncover hidden information in participants.

  286. 286.

    The GKT mock-crime paradigm has been used quite a lot by Ben-Shakar and his group for making stimuli significant in their OR studies (Sect. 3.1.1.1). In some cases, the experimental group only imagined having committed a mock-crime, the details of which are given to the participants by instruction, which constitutes a weaker experimental manipulation. The details given to the control group serve the purpose of making the circumstances of the mock crime known to them, to restrict group differences to having committed the mock crime or not.

  287. 287.

    On the other hand, validity criteria of being guilty or innocent are not easy to obtain in field studies, since in the U.S. justice practice false admissions of guilt are common to reduce the amount of penalty.

  288. 288.

    Such a time window for EDR evaluation was recommended by Raskin (1979, p. 597).

  289. 289.

    Raskin (1979) recommended that the EDR amp. should be expressed in terms of mm of chart deflection, which had been regarded by him as producing more reliable results as compared to changes in μS.

  290. 290.

    Recorded with Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes thenar/hypothenar from the right hand with a current density of 3.8 μA/cm2, using AC coupling with 0.3 s time constant.

  291. 291.

    Recorded with 2.5 × 2.5 cm stainless steel electrodes from the palmar fingertips of the left hand, using 10 μA constant current. For the CQT form with immediate response, the largest decrease in SR which occurred between 1 s following the question onset and 5 s following the verbal answer was evaluated. For the delayed response CQT form, a time window between 1 s following the question onset and 1 s following completion of the question was used to obtain the question SRR, while the largest deflection within 1 and 5 s following the verbal answer was taken as the answer SRR.

  292. 292.

    Recorded with 0.5 V and Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with K–Y jelly, attached to thenar/hypothenar sites of the left hand. The maximum SCR (minimal amplitude criterion 0.05 μS) between 1 and 5 s after stimulus onset was scored and square-root transformed.

  293. 293.

    Recorded as SRL with 10 mA constant current using Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes from palmar finger sites, converted into SC units. SCL data were reported from 2 s after the question (where the participant answered “no”) to 14 s after the question.

  294. 294.

    Recorded with standard methodology, however, using K–Y jelly and 0.74 V constant voltage. The amplitude criterion was 0.05 μS. For detection of deception, the amplitude criterion was lowered to 0.025 μS. The time windows started 1.5 s, ending 9 s for the CQT and 5 s for the GKT, after stimulus onset.

  295. 295.

    Recorded as the highest deflection from prestimulus level with standard methodology (using Beckman NaCl cream) from the palmar finger sites of the left hand (previously cleaned with soap and water), within 1–5 s following question onset. SCR amp. were expressed in mm (using 0.5 mm as amplitude criterion) and converted to μS response magnitudes.

  296. 296.

    Recorded with 4 kHz AC using lead electrodes.

  297. 297.

    Measured with liquid electrolytes made from polyethylene glycol with 0.9% NaCl (Sect. 2.2.6.3), the active electrode made from platinum, and the reference electrode made from Ag/AgCl. A frequency range from 5 Hz to 500 kHz was used.

  298. 298.

    EDA was recorded in the laboratory with 100 Hz constant current less than 8 μA, using 0.5 cm2 gold cup electrodes with standard NaCl Unibase cream, from alcohol-scrubbed left-hand sites. In the field part of the study, finger tip electrodes which consisted of silver fibers applied to Velcro pads were used for EDA biofeedback. SZLs were transformed to log SYLs for evaluation.

  299. 299.

    A single case study of successful EDA biofeedback was published by Moan (1979), training a 28-year-old female urticaria patient 8 weeks with acoustic/optic EDA biofeedback combined with a relaxation training. Her mean SCL could be reduced from 12 to 7 μS (during the relaxation even to 4 μS), and the skin disease disappeared. There was no relapse seen in an 8 month follow-up.

  300. 300.

    Klaschka (1979) reported an increase in the mitotic index by a factor of 20, 2 days after 30 cellophane-tape stripping, returning slowly to baseline from the third day on.

  301. 301.

    Recorded with 1.6 kHz and 1 mA current density, using metal electrodes of 6 mm diameter, and a 5 mm diameter filter paper soaked with 0.9% NaCl solution, from the inner aspect of the forearm.

  302. 302.

    Measured with a liquid electrode made from a syringe, combining Ag/AgCl with physiological saline in sodium methylcellulose; the inactive electrode placed in the mouth.

  303. 303.

    Measured with 1.6 kHz, using 3 mm steel electrodes together with 4 mm diameter filter paper, soaked with 0.9% NaCl solution.

  304. 304.

    From isopropyl alcohol cleaned sites. The electrolyte for SP consisted of 0.05 M NaCl in a mixture of 50% Unibase and 50% polyethylene glycol, to keep the stratum corneum minimally hydrated (Sect. 2.2.6.1).

  305. 305.

    Recorded with 3 mm2 electrodes from skin washed with soap and water, followed by rubbing with alcohol.

  306. 306.

    Recorded with lead-coated stainless steel electrodes by the use of a digital ohmmeter.

  307. 307.

    With 10 mm diameter stainless steel electrodes and commercial electrode cream from palmar vs. dorsal hand as well as foot sites, from anterior vs. posterior surfaces of the upper arm, and from patella vs. popliteal fossa sites.

  308. 308.

    With gold cup EMG disc electrodes from the ventral and dorsal surface of the right hand, using a bandpass filter of 0.3 Hz–3 kHz.

  309. 309.

    Recorded with standard methodology, using Hellige isotonic electrode cream; time window 1–5 s after stimulus onset; amplitude criterion 500 Ω.

  310. 310.

    Recorded with 9 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with commercial electrode cream from palmar/dorsal sites previously washed with acetone. When laterality of the damage was known, recording was performed at the ipsilateral hand.

  311. 311.

    There were also attempts using NS.EDR freq. and areas under the curve (Sect. 2.3.1.4) to predict awakening from total intravenous anesthesia. However, these parameters had considerably lower predictabilities compared to the “bispectral index”; based on a complex EEG evaluation (Ledowski et al., 2007).

  312. 312.

    Recorded with Ag/AgCl electrodes from the hypothenar eminence or from the palmar side of the little finger as active electrode, with the dorsal forearm as inactive and the ventral forearm as ground electrode. SPR amp. was detected as peak-to-trough measure between 1 and 5 s after stimulus presentation.

  313. 313.

    Recorded with 10 mm2 gold-plated electrodes from palmar finger sites. SCR amp. was calculated as the square-root of the difference between previous SCL and the maximum SCL within 5 s following stimulus onset.

  314. 314.

    Based on the results of an experiment with 20 healthy participants, Tranel, Fowles, and Damasio (1985) advocated the usability of EDRs in the detection of the ability to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar faces of prosopagnosic patients, who have lost the ability to recognize faces.

  315. 315.

    Recorded with 0.9 cm diameter Ag electrodes palmar/dorsal simultaneously from both hands and feet.

  316. 316.

    Recorded from palmar and plantar surfaces simultaneously with indifferent electrodes attached to the volar side of the forearm (Fig. 2.6) and the lower part of the shinbone (Fig. 2.7), respectively, with otherwise unreported methodology.

  317. 317.

    Recorded as SR with 10 μA constant current unipolarly (thumb vs. upper arm), using 15 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes, transformed to log SC values. Amplitude criterion for NS.SCRs = 0.003 log μS.

  318. 318.

    Recorded with 10 μA/cm2 CC via Ag/AgCl electrodes from the thenar region of the hand. The skin was abraded with sand paper and cleaned with alcohol before electrode attachment.

  319. 319.

    Recorded bilaterally as SCRs with standard methodology, but using 0.5 KCl-agar cream. Time window: 3 s after stimulus onset; amplitude criterion = 0.05 μS.

  320. 320.

    Recorded with standard methodology, however, using hypertonic cream. Time window: 1–5 s after stimulus onset. Habituation criterion: three consecutive SRRs below 500 Ω (Sect. 3.1.1.3).

  321. 321.

    Recorded bilaterally with standard methodology during three series of acoustic stimuli (eight 85 dB tones, twelve 105 dB tones, and two familiar sounds).

  322. 322.

    From the hand and foot opposite to stimulation by gold-plated disc electrodes, using the tip of the fifth finger and the thenar eminence, or the tip of the great toe and the anterior plantar area, respectively, as recording sites.

  323. 323.

    Measured with Ag/AgCl electrodes affixed with Velcro straps to the middle phalanges of the left hand, voltage unreported.

  324. 324.

    Recorded with an active roller electrode without cream and an ECG electrode with hypertonic cream as reference at the leg or arm, by use of a dermohmeter.

  325. 325.

    Janssen, Arntz, and Bouts (1998) used SCL recordings in an investigation into the effect of epinephrine on heat pain threshold in 24 participants (12 of each gender). Focusing of attention exerted a much stronger influence on pain responses than epinephrine infusions.

  326. 326.

    With Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with 0.5% potassium chloride in 2% agar-agar as electrolyte. SCRs were identified as ORs if being greater than 0.05 μS and occurring 1–3 s after tone onset.

  327. 327.

    Recorded from volar finger sites with Ag/AgCl electrodes and otherwise unreported methodology.

  328. 328.

    Recorded with standard methodology, using an MR capable sensor (Brain Products GmbH, Gilching, Germany). After applying MR artifact correction procedures and a bandpass filter of 0.016–5 Hz to the SC signal, SCR amp. was determined as the peak-to-peak difference between the minimum and the maximum SCL within the 1–8 s poststimulus interval.

  329. 329.

    Recorded with 50 μA CC from the first and third fingertip of the right hand through 4 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes with Cambridge electrode cream.

  330. 330.

    Recorded through standard Ag/AgCl electrodes, filled with Parker Labs Signa Gel, by a Grass Physiodata Amplifier System with a DC amplifier.

  331. 331.

    Recorded from the distal phalanges of the first and second fingers of the dominant hand with standard Ag/AgCl electrodes, using physiological NaCl in agar-agar paste as electrolyte. SC was expressed in μS/cm2.

  332. 332.

    The stimulus conditions were listening to classic music and a word association task (five neutral words and five with high emotional content).

  333. 333.

    Recorded with 8 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with isotonic KCl cream from palmar finger sites. The amplitude criterion was 0.05 μS.

  334. 334.

    In another study with normotensives, established and borderline hypertensives (N = 12 in each of the three groups), Fredrikson and Engel (1985) observed higher SCLs in borderline cases compared with the other groups. SC results paralleled cardiovascular results only in normotensives and did not yield hyperreactivity in hypertensives as did HR.

  335. 335.

    EDA has also been applied in parapsychology – an area which is clearly outside scientific research. In their review of the hitherto published 25 investigations using EDA in “direct mental interaction with living systems” or “remote staring,” Schmidt and Walach (2000) came to the conclusion that not even one of the studies referred to the standards mentioned at the beginning of the third chapter of the present book. Therefore, they highly recommended further experimenters in this area to adhere to these standards. Maybe parapsychology is not the most suitable candidate for demonstrating the negative effects of methodological pitfalls, but adhering to standard methodology as recommended here can be regarded as a minimum requirement in all kinds of applied electrodermal research. Stevens (2000) reanalyzed SC data from two previously conducted studies with altogether 123 participants, collected during periods in which a nonpresent “sender” tried to activate or calm the participants. A resting condition served as control. For better interindividual comparability, SC data were transformed to standardized z-scores according to (2.20a) in Sect. 2.3.3.4 “Transformation into Standard Values”. Several individuals showed an occasional increase in SC shortly after a presumed stimulus onset, i.e., the start of a period during which they were assumed being mentally influenced by the “sender,” but no clear pattern emerged that could have allowed a distinction between these changes and spontaneous EDRs. Some of the changes were also in the opposite direction as intended. Interestingly, SC emerged significantly more variability during the two “influence” periods as compared to the resting condition. Schmidt, Schneider, Binder, Bürkle, and Walach (2001) analyzed SC data (recorded with standard methodology from thenar/hypothenar eminences) from 26 sessions with a total of 52 participants (24 females, 28 males). The room temperature was set to either 23 or 26°C to enhance electrodermal reactivity (Sect. 2.4.1.1). In addition to SC, respiration was recorded, not so much for the control of artifacts but as a mediator for explaining some of the variance in phasic EDA (Sect. 2.2.5.2). Each session consisted of ten activate and ten calm epochs. The “sender” viewed the other participant’s SC curve, trying to activate or deactivate the participant by means of mentality or intentionality. The randomized influence epochs were interspersed by 15-s resting periods. The authors applied five different procedures for evaluating their data, four of which yielded approximately the same results. Besides the SCL, NS.SCR freq., and mean NS.SCR amp. were evaluated. All three parameters showed a marked effect of the “activate” condition. However, since EDA substantially covaried with respiratory activity, the authors interpreted their results as demonstrating a sort of global effect of their “mental interaction” condition on the psychophysiological arousal of their participants.

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    Wolfram Boucsein

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Boucsein, W. (2012). Applications of Electrodermal Recording. In: Electrodermal Activity. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1126-0_3

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