Abstract
The second chapter of the book discusses the different methods used for electrodermal recording. As mentioned in the introduction to Chap. 1, the observation of electrodermal phenomena requires only relatively basic equipment. As a consequence, a variety of recording methods have been proposed.
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Notes
- 1.
Although the respective EDL is built up of physical units with ratio scales, it is sometimes recommended that the EDL signal – like most psychophysiological variables – be treated as based only on interval scales (Levey, 1980; Stemmler, 1984), which would naturally also affect the performance of transformations (Sect. 2.3.3). However, EDR amp. obtained by the AC-coupled amplification cannot be treated as based on a ratio scale anyway.
- 2.
The reading off and manual recording of the placement of the potentiometer R 3 in Fig. 2.3 cannot be recommended because of its error proneness.
- 3.
Dirac impulses only exist in theory; in practice, a very narrow bandwidth square wave impulse with high amplitude is used. There may be danger of developing pain and erythema.
- 4.
In a recently performed study for comparison of electrode creams for electrodermal recording, Tronstad, Johnsen, Grimnes, and Martinsen (2010; see also Sect. 2.2.2.5) applied constant voltage AC to contralateral palmar and abdominal sites. They observed an inverse EDR at abdominal sites which they interpreted as being due to an easier penetration of the hydrous components of the electrode gel into the sweat ducts, being facilitated by the thinner stratum corneum compared to palmar sites. They presumed that the mechanism of sweat reabsorption during recovery from sudomotor activity facilitates relatively moist and low-viscosity creams such as TD-246 (see Footnote 22 in Sect. 2.2.2.5) to penetrate into the ducts, thereby changing EDRs.
- 5.
- 6.
Toyokura (1999) recorded SPRs following electric stimulation of the left median nerve at the wrist from 41 participants (9 females, 32 males; aged 22–60 years) from palmar and plantar sites in parallel, using reference electrodes on the nail of the index finger and the big toe. In general, SPRs at the soles had longer latencies and smaller amplitudes than those at the palms. These differences were larger than those between left- and right-recording sites. Furthermore, SPR waveforms (Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Amplitudes of Endosomatic Responses”) yielded not always congruent patterns on the palms and soles. However, these regional differences were not always reproducible.
- 7.
No further specifications were provided for SC-recording in the paper. The electrodes were made from nickel plated brass and a stable 1.2 V reference was applied to the skin (Ouwerkerk, May 2011, personal communication). The device is also capable of storing data on onboard flash memory in off-line mode (de Vries, May 2011, personal communication). The data were sampled at 2 Hz, but actually, low-pass filtering was attained by taking eight samples in a row at 16 Hz which were then averaged (moving average). SCL and SCRs were evaluated, the latter by using the SCRGAUGE parameterization program from Kohlisch, published in the Appendix of Boucsein (1992). Because of the low quality of the SC signal, additional filtering was necessary.
- 8.
At present, the use of such non-standard electrode sites cannot be recommended, since thorough comparisons of their electrodermal reactivity with the one of standard sites are still missing.
- 9.
Silver plated 92%, nylon 8%, surface resistance <1Ω/sq and contact area of 3.5 cm2.
- 10.
According to Venables and Christie (1980), no differences of skin potentials between abraded and non-abraded forearm sites were observable with children, so when children are used as participants, pretreatment will not be necessary.
- 11.
For an improved handling, the overlaying rim of the adhesive collar can be attached horizontally to the rim of a table, to allow the experimenter using both hands for the electrode cream insertion.
- 12.
The relative error due to seepage is dependent on electrode diameter. One millimeter of seepage increases the contact area to 2.25 times of its original size with 4 mm diameter miniature electrodes, but to only 1.13 times in case of 1 cm diameter electrodes are used (Venables & Christie, 1980).
- 13.
Furthermore, to the present author’s experience, removing the second cover from the adhesive collar which is already fixed on the skin exerts some tension on the collar, which may lead to its detachment from the skin.
- 14.
Histoacryl glue must be refrigerated. Experimenters must be also seriously cautioned, since careless use of histoacryl can result in eye damage. Also, acetone (which is also a cancer-causing suspect) might attack the rim of the electrode’s plastic chamber, thus roughen it and eventually damage its surface which is needed for the adherence to the collar.
- 15.
Mastic adhesive is made from the Mastic pistachio tree. The German name is Mastix.
- 16.
This corresponds to a 0.1 M solution of the monovalent NaCl (i.e., 0.58 g NaCl dissolved in 100 mL water).
- 17.
The Beckman biopotential electrodes (see Footnote 18) show bias potentials of less than 250 μV and polarization potentials of less than 5 μV (Venables & Christie, 1980). Ag/AgCl electrodes can also be homemade, albeit unsintered (cf. Venables & Christie, 1973, p. 107), and good results are obtainable, but the manufacturing process is rather expensive, since pure silver (99.99%) would be necessary. Therefore, buying commercially available Ag/AgCl electrodes should be preferred. It should be noted that even with the use of so-called nonpolarizable electrodes there is still the possibility of counter e.m.f generation at the electrodes (Sect. 2.2.2.2).
- 18.
The standard biopotential electrodes from Beckman Instruments have a contact area of 0.636 cm2. In Vivo-Metric-Systems electrodes, which are also sold alternatively together with a plug connection between the electrode and its wire, are of approximately the same size.
- 19.
As to the present author’s experience, relatively long fluid storage may enable the saline penetrating into the plastic electrode chamber, which could result in corrosion of the contact between electrode and lead.
- 20.
Sensor Medics recommended removing the deposit with dilute ammonium hydroxide. A five-to-one dilution with distilled water has been used with success (Vincent, July 1990, personal communication).
- 21.
Recently, disposable EDA snap electrodes came into use, being distributed by BIOPAC Systems Inc. (http://www.biopac.com) and in Germany by med-NATIC (http://www.med-natic.de). These are Ag/AgCl electrodes of 2.5 × 4.5 cm size, filled with a 0.5% NaCl cream, with a foam backing and a stainless steel snap for electrode wires.
- 22.
This is also true of the electrode cream “Synapse” made by Beckman Instruments which has been frequently used in EDA measurements. An analysis of this and other gels was made by Zipp, Hennemann, Grunwald, and Rohmert (1980), who found in “Synapse” a significant quantity of K and Cl ions in addition to Na ions. Grey and Smith (1984) reported that the Beckman cream has a NaCl concentration of 4.1 M, and contains glycerol, gum tragacanth, and 0.5% benzyl alcohol (as preservative). Beckman does no longer offer “Synapse,” and Unibase is also no longer available. The TD-246 electrode paste, which contains 0.5% saline in a neutral base, can be bought from Discount Disposables: http://www.discountdisposables.com/. According to the manufacturer, this cream “meets all the recommended specifications.” The cream is also distributed by Grass Technologies under the brand name EC33: http://www.grasstechnologies.com/ and as TD-246 in Germany by PAR Medizintechnik (http://www.PAR-Berlin.com).
- 23.
- 24.
Grey and Smith (1984) have published the following as being the ingredients of Unibase: cetyl and stearyl alcohols, soft paraffin, glycerol, and, as preservatives; 0.0015% propyl hydroxy-benzoate, sodium citrate, and sodium lauryl sulfate. The relative quantities are not provided. The water content is 63.4%. According to Grey and Smith, Unibase contains 0.028 mol/L Na ions. Back in the 1980s, the present author had this recipe chemically analyzed; the results were 0.07 mol/L Na and 0.045 mol/L Cl, the increased sodium being due to the Unibase itself (see Footnote 23). The cream is free from K and Ca ions (less than 0.01 g/kg) and has a nearly neutral pH value of 6.5. The analysis was performed by B. Neidhart, Institute for Industrial Physiology at the University of Dortmund, Germany.
- 25.
Skin potential can be recorded with any EEG or EMG channel, which is a standard technique in neurology (Sect. 3.5.4).
- 26.
Since Lykken and Venables (1971) recommended that skin conductance should be used as the appropriate unit for EDA measurement, constant current recording went out of use in most psychophysiological laboratories. However, because of the lower amplifier gain required, constant current methods are sometimes preferred in field applications (Sects. 2.1.1 and 2.6.2).
- 27.
- 28.
Note that this description is oriented towards paper recording (Sect. 2.2.4.1) which has come widely out of use. However, it is worth pondering such a procedure for a complete understanding of SC-recording, even if it is performed with A/D conversion of the recorded signal and subsequent computer evaluation (Sect. 2.2.4.2).
- 29.
- 30.
The Vitaport ambulatory monitoring system is now distributed by TEMEC Instruments in Kerkrade, The Netherlands.
- 31.
The Varioport ambulatory monitoring system is distributed by Becker Meditec in Karlsruhe, Germany.
- 32.
- 33.
Siemens 2-T VISION system for acquiring gradient-echo, echo-planar T*-weighted images with BOLD (blood oxygenation level dependent) contrast. Each volume comprised 48 × 3 mm axial scans with 3 mm inplane resolution, continuously acquired every 4.2 s. SC was recorded with Ag electrodes taped to the palmar surface of the left index and middle fingers, presumably without electrode cream.
- 34.
Participants were scanned using a Siemens 1.5-T Magnetom VISION Plus system to acquire 64 T2*-weighted images depicting BOLD contrast for each stimulus of 3 s duration at 18 axial noncontinuous 6 mm thick planes (slices), parallel to the intracommissural line; sampling rate for the BOLD response (TR) = 3 s, TE = 40 ms, 128 × 128 matrix, interslice gap 0.6 mm.
- 35.
The functional imaging data were acquired by a 1.5-T Siemens Symphony MRI-scanner with a Quantum gradient system. To measure the BOLD contrast, a T2*-weighted EPI (echo-planar imaging) sequence (TR = 2.5 s, TE = 60 ms, 64 × 64 matrix) was used. The volume contained 16 slices with a 5-mm slice thickness (no gap). The slices were acquired interleaved in ascending order. Artifacts stemming from recording (Sect. 2.2.5.1) were reduced with automatic 1D de-noising using wavelets. The threshold selection rule was a heuristic variant of Stein’s Unbiased Risk (Matlab R12).
- 36.
Functional and structural MRI scans were obtained using a GE Signa 1.5-T scanner. The participant’s neck and head were stabilized within foam padding within a brain-specific RF head coil. An EPI pulse sequence was used for collecting functional data (TR = 2.5 s, TE = 30 ms, FOV = 24 cm, 64 × 64 matrix). The entire brain was covered in 20 or 21 slices in the sagittal plane, resulting in voxel dimensions of 3.75 × 3.75 × 7 mm. Additionally, a high-resolution fast 3D T1-weighted structural image (TE = 6 ms, FOV = 24 cm, 256 × 256 × 124 voxels of 1.9 × 1.9 × 2 mm) was obtained as anatomical reference. SC was recorded by AgCl electrodes from the index and middle fingers of the participant’s left hand by means of a commercially available recording system which was placed outside the magnet room. Analog SC signals were recorded at 10 Hz and passed to an A/D converter. No more SC-recording details were provided.
- 37.
- 38.
After gentle removal of their electrodes being for 24 h in place, Tronstad et al. (2010) took photographs of the skin areas that were blindly assessed by a dermatologist for skin irritation by different electrode creams. Only some signs of very faint erythema were observed, the degree of which was always lower than on the skin areas under the adhesive tape.
- 39.
Recently, omitting of an electrode cream became rather common in EDA recording devices for applications outside the laboratory (Sects. 2.2.3.4 and 2.2.6.3). However, it must be kept in mind that such a system will be unstable for an unknown period of time, since the humidity built up by sweat under dry electrodes will cause a drift towards an increase of skin conductance.
- 40.
For a multiple-electrode recording technique using electrical impedance spectroscopy, see Footnote 50, Sect. 1.4.3.3.
- 41.
Small deviations from this standard methodology will be mentioned in the text, larger ones in footnotes.
- 42.
Nishiyama, Sugenoya, Matsumoto, Iwase, and Mano (2001), in their study described in Footnote 17, Sect. 1.3.2.1, observed that sudomotor bursts as recorded by microneurography were followed by SPRs with latencies of 1.33 ± 0.33 s.
- 43.
The convention for graphical representation is, as in the neurophysiological tradition of EEG recording, “negative up” (Venables & Christie, 1980).
- 44.
An illustration of two subsequent EDRs, from both of which all EDR parameters can be obtained without extrapolation because the recovery of the first EDR goes beyond half of its amplitude is shown in Fig. 18.3 of Boucsein (2005).
- 45.
A declaration of the signal-to-noise ratio, which is obvious in audio devices, is often lacking in descriptions of polygraph amplifiers.
- 46.
The first derivate has been used by Biro and Stukovsy (1993) in an evaluation of paper-recorded SRRs to 1 kHz, 100 dB, 550 ms tones from 300 male participants. Besides the SRR amp. evaluated from the original curve, several amplitude, time, and reaction shape parameters were exploited from the first derivate. A factor analysis of all parameters revealed a response shape factor, an amplitude factor and a latency factor, which altogether accounted for 84.6% of the total variance.
- 47.
Thom (1988) used a criterion of 10% instead, because the application of the 1% criterion is difficult if numerous electrodermal fluctuations appear.
- 48.
A is measured in mV for SP, in μS for SC and SY, and in kΩ for SR and SZ.
- 49.
The curve was kindly made available by F. Foerster, University of Freiburg, Germany.
- 50.
Refined mathematical modeling of EDR curves had been performed by Hunt (1977), who developed an equation based on overlapping Gaussian distributions to fit the course of SRRs, and by Schneider (1987). Schneider fitted a three-compartment model to the recorded SC curve (personal communication) which includes the physical properties of the duct filling, the active membrane response in the duct walls, and the corneal hydration (Sect. 1.4.2). Schneider could show that a typical SCR can be modeled by assuming a roughly triangular input signal and choosing as an impulse response a sum of two exponentials with time constants of approximately 2 and 20 s, respectively. More recently, several authors came forward with similar proposals for the mathematical modeling of overlapping SCRs which are generated by short ISIs (Sect. 2.3.1.5).
- 51.
- 52.
In their mathematical model, sudomotor nerve discharges were regarded as Dirac impulses (see Sect. 1.4.1.4). According to the convolution theorem, the Fourier transformed SC – SCL signal time series equals the product of the Fourier transformed nerve discharges with the Fourier transformed response function (see equation (3) in Bach et al., 2010). This means that the sudomotor nerve discharge frequency will have its greatest impact on the SC spectral power if it matches the peak frequencies of the response function. If the spectral power of the response function is known, it will be possible to recover the sudomotor nerve firing frequency according to equation (5) in Bach et al. However, unknown noise and response variability may prevent such an approach.
- 53.
The appropriateness of this assumption is questionable. In general, mathematical models have not yet overcome the general problem that EDRs reveal so different shapes. Even if the model fits the majority of the empirically observed EDR recoveries, there is still a remainder of forms which differ so much from the identified standard that models may fail in evaluating them adequately.
- 54.
- 55.
This is an assumption which is not in line with the variability in SCR shape observed by various researchers (cf. Benedek & Kaernbach, 2010) (see also Footnote 53).
- 56.
In the present author’s view, this assumption does not meet what can be observed in the majority of EDRs, which do not return to the SCL prior to their onset, even in case of nonsuperimposed SCRs (Sect. 2.3.1.3 “Recovery Parameters”). Bach et al. (2009) artificially attained such a return to zero by applying high-pass filtering, thus removing slow components of the SCR which may reflect important processes resulting from moistening the corneum (Sect. 1.4.2.3).
- 57.
A nonstandard recording method has been applied, using a 10 V source in series with a 13.2 MΩ resistor over dry Ag/AgCl electrodes of 10 mm diameter. SC data were sampled at 32 Hz and 24 bit A/D conversion. As an amplitude criterion, 0.01 μS was applied. To improve distributional characteristics, data were logarithmically transformed (Sect. 2.3.3.3).
- 58.
An increase of SCR amp. with increasing ISI length was also found by Breska, Maoz, and Ben-Shakhar (2011), who compared ISIs ranging from 16 to 24 s (mean 20 s) with ISIs shortened by 50% in a within-subjects design with 36 participants (19 females, 17 males).
- 59.
- 60.
Edelberg (1967) proposed using the frequency of changes in the EDL within a certain time span instead of the NS.EDR freq. as an indicator of arousal, a method which has not yet been applied to the present author’s knowledge.
- 61.
Following the same rationale, impedance and admittance values might be related to the electrode area. Such kind of transformation is not common in endosomatic recording.
- 62.
This has been demonstrated by Boucsein, Baltissen, and Euler (1984) using both recording methods in parallel during the application of 2-s white noise stimuli with intensities between 60 and 110 dB.
- 63.
ALS scores can be standardized not only intraindividually over the different EDRs, but also interindividually for each response over all participants. In the latter case, both score sequences X and Y are calculated using the EDRs of all participants to the same stimulus.
- 64.
The computer program described in the Appendix of this book allows for a display of the respiratory signal together with the EDA curve to be evaluated.
- 65.
Several authors used the term “EDR magnitude” instead of “EDR amplitude” (Sect. 2.3.1.2). Therefore, care should be taken in ascertaining just which method of evaluation was used in the respective publications.
- 66.
Mathematically this is a type of missing data treatment, as nonappearing EDRs, or EDRs which remain below an amplitude criterion (Sect. 2.3.1.2 “Choice of Amplitude Criteria”) are taken into account in evaluation. The EDR magnitude (more precisely, the mean EDA magnitude) is calculated by dividing the sum of the evaluated EDR amp. by the number of occasions in which EDRs might have been expected.
- 67.
This is understandable if one notes that Venables and Christie give 21°C as the correct temperature for a European laboratory, which is in the present author’s experience somewhat too low. Instead, in his own laboratory, the present author maintained a constant temperature of 23°C and 50% relative humidity.
- 68.
The authors reported that they had to raise the laboratory temperature to an unusually high 30°C, since at lower temperatures the Mauritians displayed hardly any EDRs.
- 69.
In addition, functional and morphological changes in eccrine sweat glands have been observed in vitro and in vivo during heat acclimatization in three patas monkeys by Sato, Owen, Matthes, Sato, and Gisolfi (1990).
- 70.
Recorded as SR by means of a modified Wheatstone bridge (Fig. 2.3, Sect. 2.1.3), converted into log resistance values (Sect. 2.3.3.3). The recording device allowed for up to 20 active electrodes being connected in rapid succession. Recording sites were: fingertips, middle and proximal phalanges of the fingers, several palmar (including thenar and hypothenar) sites, the dorsal side of the hand, the wrist, several volar, and one dorsal point on the forearm.
- 71.
This study was performed with electrodes that were mechanically pressed to the skin.
- 72.
The dry electrodes used in this study may have contributed to this inconsistency.
- 73.
One interesting result should be mentioned here: Christie and Venables (1971) observed negative correlations between the BSPL (Sect. 2.3.2.1) and the T-wave amplitude (TWA) in the ECG, from investigating 21 male participants lying down (r = −0.70) and from another 15 participants in a sitting position (r = −0.61). The authors suggest the extracellular potassium ionic concentration as being the cause for both an increased TWA and an increased negativity of the BSPL. Furedy and Heslegrave (1983) suggested that the TWA constitutes an index of excitatory sympathetic activity. Since the EDA is a valid index of sympathetic excitation, a high correlation between TWA and EDA could have been expected.
- 74.
In this preparation, the active sweat glands appear as holes, since the plastic film does not attach to water (i.e., sweat on top of the open pore), which can be counted. This method had been discussed as a cheap alternative to recording tonic EDA, labeled “palmar sweat index” (Turpin & Clements, 1993) but was rather seldom used to date.
- 75.
EDA was measured as SRL with a 2.54 cm2 dry silver disk electrode and transformed into SCLs.
- 76.
EDA was measured as SR through Ag/AgCl sponge electrodes of 1 cm diameter with an “inert” electrolyte using 40 μA current and a Wheatstone bridge, being transformed to SC values.
- 77.
In their comparison of eight postmenopausal older females (52–62 years) with eight younger females (20–30 years) during exercise under dry heat, Anderson and Kenney (1987) observed a lower sweating rate in the older group, which reflected a diminished output per heat-activated sweat gland rather than a decrease in the number of sweat glands recruited.
- 78.
Recorded with pure silver spiral electrodes that were chlorided electrolytically.
- 79.
Recorded as SR with 46 μA from palm vs. forearm with 1 cm2 Ag/AgCl electrodes held in place by an elastic band, using cellulose sponge holders soaked with saline as electrolyte.
- 80.
To the present author’s experience, electrodermal nonreactivity in elderly study participants may be a result of too low ambient temperatures and hence generally reduced sweat gland activity (Sect. 2.4.1.1). Therefore, care should be taken for creating comfortable climatic conditions for elderly participants, e.g., by raising the laboratory temperature several degrees or covering their body with a light blanket.
- 81.
Recorded with standard methodology with the use of a Wheatstone bridge from the volar surfaces of the distal phalanges of the first and second fingers of the nonpreferred hand. The recording interval was 1–5 s after stimulus onset (1 kHz, 75 dB tones at irregular intervals between 30 and 90 s); the amplitude criterion was 0.05 μS.
- 82.
Using 2 cm diameter zinc electrodes, embedded in a plastic cup, which was filled with 1% zinc sulfate in agar paste. A 40 μA current was applied to measure SR, the SRR amp was determined and transformed to log SC change.
- 83.
Recorded with silver electrodes covered with an AgCl layer attached by means of flexible wires to palmar, plantar, and calf regions, using a constant voltage of 1.35 V.
- 84.
- 85.
With 1.0 V CC, using a Wheatstone bridge, 7.5 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes thenar/hypothenar from the nondominant hand.
- 86.
Unipolar recording taken from the palm and the sole with Ag/AgCl electrodes of 7 mm diameter, filled with Beckman electrode cream enriched with additional salt. The inactive electrode was attached to the dorsum of the respective hand and foot, and another one on the forearm as control site.
- 87.
Recorded by zinc/zinc sulfate saline electrodes from palmar sites, transformed to log values.
- 88.
Method not reported in detail, presumably unipolar.
- 89.
With zinc electrodes and zinc sulfate electrode cream from palmar sites.
- 90.
Recorded with standard methodology, however using Beckman cream, as SR and transformed to SC. Differences appeared in both SCL and NS.SCR freq.
- 91.
Maximum SCL reached during the presentation of five slides, recorded with K–Y gel, the type of electrodes not being mentioned.
- 92.
Gender differences in electrodermal conditioning have also be observed in dependence of the person’s gender who expressed emotions on slides used as CSs. Mazurski, Bond, Siddle, and Lovibond (1996) presented to 52 females and 35 males angry faces as CS+ and neutral faces as CS− in a picture-shock conditioning paradigm, crossing the expressing person’s gender with the gender of participants. Male participants showed larger SCR amp. (recorded with standard methodology) to expressions of males than did female participants, whereas the respective SCR amp. did not differ in female participants. Therefore, the “preparedness” hypothesis of conditioning (Sect. 3.1.2.1 “UCR Diminution, Preception and Preparedness”) could only be confirmed for male participants.
- 93.
Increasing thoracic pressure through trying an exhalation with mouth and nose shut, following deep breathing.
- 94.
Recorded with 7 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes, 0.068 M NaCl cream and two 0.2 V constant voltage amplifiers on both hands simultaneously.
- 95.
Gender differences have also been observed in EDA recordings during the presentation of emotion-inducing films (Kring & Gordon, 1998; see Footnote 158 in Sect. 3.2.2.1) and in pictures with emotional content (Bradley, Codispoti, Sabatinelli, & Lang, 2001). In the first study of the latter authors performed with 50 females and 45 males, a marginal gender main effect was obtained for the SC peak, indicating that larger SC changes were observed when males viewed opposite-sex erotic pictures, compared with females.
- 96.
Recorded with CV from 10 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes, filled with 17% NaCl gel; no further specifications provided.
- 97.
Recordings were performed with 0.2 V “constant current” from 7 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes filled with 0.068 M NaCl gel, attached to the thenar/hypothenar eminences of the right hand.
- 98.
Described only as taken from the fingers and expressed in μS.
- 99.
For more information on sweat gland activity in postmenopausal females, see Footnote 77 in Sect. 2.4.3.1.
- 100.
Using a 0.5 V constant voltage and 1.5 cm diameter Ag/AgCl ambulatory monitoring electrodes, filed with 0.05 M KCl Unibase-glycol paste. Ambulatory recording was performed with a Medilog tape recorder.
- 101.
It is sometimes said that Chinese people do not have sweat glands. This erroneous statement may result from sweat gland activity being normally lower in Asiatic people, due to their sweat glands being smaller as compared to those of Caucasians.
- 102.
Recorded with stainless steel disc electrodes of 9.5 mm diameter, filled with so-called Cambridge cream, by means of a tissue resistance monitor providing 8 Hz square wave and a constant current of 20 μA.
- 103.
For further discussion of experimenter’s ethnic group on participant’s physiological reactions, see Venables and Christie (1973).
- 104.
Measured palmar/dorsal at the dominant hand by Ag/AgCl electrodes and Beckman electrode cream, using “a constant direct current of 20 μV” (which should be presumably μA).
- 105.
Barabasz (1970) observed significant more EDA changes during an imagination task in 19 African-Americans compared to 20 Caucasians.
- 106.
Method of EDA measurement as used by the Johnson group (see Footnote 131, Sect. 3.2.1.3).
- 107.
Obtained with a so-called Fels Dermohmeter and zinc electrodes from the palms, and in one group from the plantar arch.
- 108.
Recorded with standard methodology, using constant current of 10 μA/cm2.
- 109.
Jorgenson et al. (1988) in their study described in the Sect. 2.4.3.1, revealed by using the finger-sweat print method that the number of active hypothenar sweat glands per 1/4 cm² was considerably higher in African-American compared to White newborns, being reversed in children of mean age 7–8 years and in adults of about 25 years, with some gender differences as well (cf., Jorgenson et al., Table 3).
- 110.
Measured with standard methodology (using Beckman cream) as skin resistance (but with 20 μA constant current), transformed to SC.
- 111.
These results are not really convincing, since the Caucasian Bedouin sample participants were partly gathered by the police and were being moved, both actions may raise SCL markedly. In another study, Kugelmass and Lieblich (1968) observed higher SCL and lower electrodermal reactivity in Bedouin samples as compared to Israeli samples.
- 112.
Presentation of 16 combinations of a tone (1 kHz, 68 dB, 35 s) with a 110 dB white noise of 0.5 s duration, the length of which could be shortened by pressing a button.
- 113.
Measured by Ag/AgCl sponge electrodes from the right palm.
- 114.
Recorded with CV, 8 mm diameter Ag/AgCl electrodes with an isotonic NaCl paste from the participant’s left index and middle fingers, scoring the maximum SCR during 1–4 s after stimulus onset.
- 115.
A review of reliabilities of different EDA parameters including various investigations was provided by Freixa i Baqué (1982).
- 116.
Since phasic SP measures are so much dependent upon experimental as well as recording conditions, reporting typical distribution parameters and reliabilities will not be attempted.
- 117.
They used tin electrodes with a contact surface area of 0.72 cm2, probably without electrolytes.
- 118.
Recorded with disc electrodes of 10 mm in diameter from the volar and dorsal side of the hand and the foot. SPRs were evoked by various stimuli at irregular intervals: deep inspiration, single auditory clicks and electrical stimulation of the median nerve at the wrist, the tibial nerve at the ankle, and the supraorbital nerve at the forehead.
- 119.
The method of determining the BSPL as the minimal obtainable SPL has already been discussed in Sect. 2.3.2.1.
- 120.
They used liquid electrolytes (KCl/agar) and calomel (mercury chloride) electrodes.
- 121.
They used the earlobe as an inactive site for SP recordings, and dry silver electrodes with 3.8 cm2 surfaces for SR recordings.
- 122.
Venables’ team used KCl-based electrode cream. Although sweat contains by far more NaCl than KCl, the difference between the use of those monovalent ions is given little importance in the literature on methodology (Sect. 2.2.2.5).
- 123.
Since the SCL scores are also dependent upon the type and concentration of the electrolytes, the distribution data from the study of Venables’ team cannot easily be generalized, as they used a KCl cream that is not commonly used for SC measurements.
- 124.
Based on the same data set, Fahrenberg, Schneider, and Safian (1987) reported short-term stabilities between r = 0.03 and 0.27 under resting conditions and between r = 0.05 and 0.32 under performance conditions for the NS.SCR freq. (amplitude criterion = 0.3 μS). A short-term stability of r = 0.57 was reported within a 30-min session from initial to final resting.
- 125.
For mathematical solutions for overlapping EDRs, see Sect. 2.3.1.5.
- 126.
Three weeks being between the first and second recordings and between the third and fourth recordings, and 6 weeks being between the second and third recordings.
- 127.
The authors used standard methodology, with electrodes of 12 mm in diameter, but transformed the SR scores into SC units before calculating nonspecific responses.
- 128.
In this study, an unusually high current of 70 μA was used.
- 129.
Recorded by means of zinc electrodes with a contact surface area of 0.32 cm2, zinc sulfate as electrolyte and a constant current method with 3.0 μA; results being transformed into conductance units, and the SCR amp. being square root transformed (Sect. 2.3.3.3).
- 130.
Recording was performed with constant current using concentric electrodes with an internal diameter of 5 mm and an external diameter of 0.6–1 cm, using 0.05 M KCl cream on an agar base, from the index and middle fingers of the left hand.
- 131.
Recovery measured in percent of amplitude decrease 2 s after the point of maximum deflection.
- 132.
They used stainless steel electrodes with 2 cm diameter, at a distance of 2 cm on the volar middle of the underarm, fastened with rubber bands to filter paper soaked with a NaCl solution.
- 133.
When a baseline score (a) and a response score (b) are uncorrelated, the correlation of the reactivity measure (a − b) and the baseline score (a) cannot equal zero because they have a common term (Myrtek & Foerster, 1986). For many physiological variables, (a) and (b) are not totally independent from each other, which leads to differently high correlations between (a) and (b), and therefore to a differently large a(a − b) effect.
- 134.
Palmar recording with zinc sulfate cream, at 40 μA.
- 135.
As a consequence, one should rather use the term “concept of initial values” instead of the term “law.”
- 136.
A thorough discussion of such corrections which are based either on the use of transformations or on regression techniques is found in Levey (1980, p. 619 ff.).
- 137.
See (1.6e) in Sect. 1.4.1.2. To avoid confusion, the parameter x is used instead of R in (1.22) in Sect. 1.4.3.1.
- 138.
- 139.
In spite of Lykken and Venables gave a clear recommendation for constant voltage methods as early as in 1971 and the SPR Publication recommendations adhered to this 10 years later (Fowles et al., 1981), both types of methods are still in use as can be inferred from various studies cited in the present book.
- 140.
- 141.
- 142.
Zinc electrodes of 21 mm diameter together with zinc sulfate as electrode cream were used.
- 143.
- 144.
With 0.6 cm2 Beckman Ag/AgCl electrodes, Hellige isotonic electrode cream (Sect. 2.2.2.5), 0.5 V constant voltage and 10 μA/cm2 constant current. The participants received 30 acoustic stimuli at intensities varying between 60 and 110 dB.
- 145.
In a study where 20 participants were presented 10 tones of 50 dB each, and additionally white quadrangles as stimuli. With the constant current measurements, Barry (1981) used polarizable electrodes and non-isotonic cream, while the constant voltage measurements were performed using standard methodology.
- 146.
In the present author’s view, other attempts which take advantage of computerized EDR evaluation have not as yet demonstrated their superiority to traditional procedures within a theoretically underpinned context, such as discarding the theoretically founded FIR/SIR evaluation of EDRs within classical conditioning (Sect. 3.1.2.1 “Recent Developments in EDR Conditioning”). At least, all attempts to modify standard EDA evaluation procedures should include a diligent empirical comparison with traditional evaluation methods.
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Boucsein, W. (2012). Methods of Electrodermal Recording. In: Electrodermal Activity. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1126-0_2
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