Abstract
Regional anesthesia began half a century after ether was first used for general anesthesia. Each branch of anesthesia has waxed and waned in popularity since their introduction, but now, with the advent of evidence-based medicine, true comparisons of outcome following general or regional anesthesia should be available.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Prondzinsky R et al. Surgical trauma affects the proinflammatory status after cardiac surgery to a higher degree than cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;129(4):760–6.
Kehlet H. Multimodal approach to control postoperative pathophysiology and rehabilitation. Br J Anaesth. 1997;78(5):606–17.
Sembo J. Influence of thoracotomy and pulmonary surgery on coagulation and fibrinolysis in the intra and postoperative period – experimental and clinical study. Nippon Geka Gakkai Zasshi. 1989;90(2):199–209.
Rosenfeld BA. Benefits of regional anesthesia on thromboembolic complications following surgery. Reg Anesth. 1996;21(6 Suppl):9–12.
Charmandari E, Tsigos C, Chrousos G. Endocrinology of the stress response. Annu Rev Physiol. 2005;67:259–84.
Akhtar S, Barash PG, Inzucchi SE. Scientific principles and clinical implications of perioperative glucose regulation and control. Anesth Analg. 2010;110(2):478–97.
Hu S et al. A comparison of regional and general anaesthesia for total replacement of the hip or knee: a meta-analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2009;91(7):935–42.
Shavit Y et al. Effects of fentanyl on natural killer cell activity and on resistance to tumor metastasis in rats. Dose and timing study. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2004;11(4):255–60.
Lois F, De Kock M. Does regional anesthesia improve long-term patient outcome? Techn Reg Anesth Pain Manag. 2008;12(4):203–8.
Bar-Yosef S et al. Attenuation of the tumor-promoting effect of surgery by spinal blockade in rats. Anesthesiology. 2001;94(6):1066–73.
Wada H et al. Combined spinal and general anesthesia attenuates liver metastasis by preserving TH1/TH2 cytokine balance. Anesthesiology. 2007;106(3):499–506.
Exadaktylos AK et al. Can anesthetic technique for primary breast cancer surgery affect recurrence or metastasis? Anesthesiology. 2006;105(4):660–4.
Christopherson R et al. Long-term survival after colon cancer surgery: a variation associated with choice of anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2008;107(1):325–32.
Gottschalk A et al. Association between epidural analgesia and cancer recurrence after colorectal cancer surgery. Anesthesiology. 2010;113:27–34.
Hadzic A, New York School of Regional Anesthesia. Textbook of regional anesthesia and acute pain management. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division; 2007.
Wu CL et al. Effect of postoperative epidural analgesia on morbidity and mortality following surgery in medicare patients. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2004;29(6):525–33,discussion 515–9.
Kehlet H, Wilmore DW. Multimodal strategies to improve surgical outcome. Am J Surg. 2002;183(6):630–41.
Kehlet H. Acute pain control and accelerated postoperative surgical recovery. Surg Clin North Am. 1999;79(2):431–43.
Valentin N et al. Spinal or general anaesthesia for surgery of the fractured hip? A prospective study of mortality in 578 patients. Br J Anaesth. 1986;58(3):284–91.
Davis FM et al. Prospective, multi-centre trial of mortality following general or spinal anaesthesia for hip fracture surgery in the elderly. Br J Anaesth. 1987;59(9):1080–8.
Parker MJ, Handoll HH, Griffiths R. Anaesthesia for hip fracture surgery in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(4):CD000521.
McLeod K et al. Long-term survival of surgically treated hip fracture in an Australian regional hospital. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2005;33(6):749–55.
Kehlet H. Epidural analgesia and the endocrine-metabolic response to surgery. Update and perspectives. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1984;28(2):125–7.
Moller IW et al. The modifying effect of spinal anaesthesia on intra- and postoperative adrenocortical and hyperglycaemic response to surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1984;28(3):266–9.
Tuman KJ et al. Effects of epidural anesthesia and analgesia on coagulation and outcome after major vascular surgery. Anesth Analg. 1991;73(6):696–704.
Go AS, Browner WS. Cardiac outcomes after regional or general anesthesia. Do we have the answer? Anesthesiology. 1996;84(1):1–2.
Rodgers A et al. Reduction of postoperative mortality and morbidity with epidural or spinal anaesthesia: results from overview of randomised trials. BMJ. 2000;321(7275):1493.
Beattie WS, Badner NH, Choi P. Epidural analgesia reduces postoperative myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis. Anesth Analg. 2001;93(4):853–8.
Yeager MP et al. Epidural anesthesia and analgesia in high-risk surgical patients. Anesthesiology. 1987;66(6):729–36.
Sharrock NE et al. Effects of epidural anesthesia on the incidence of deep-vein thrombosis after total knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1991;73(4):502–6.
Urwin SC, Parker MJ, Griffiths R. General versus regional anaesthesia for hip fracture surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Br J Anaesth. 2000;84(4):450–5.
Wu CL, Fleisher LA. Outcomes research in regional anesthesia and analgesia. Anesth Analg. 2000;91(5):1232–42.
Rosenfeld BA et al. The effects of different anesthetic regimens on fibrinolysis and the development of postoperative arterial thrombosis. Perioperative Ischemia Randomized Anesthesia Trial Study Group. Anesthesiology. 1993;79(3):435–43.
Liu SS, Wu CL. Effect of postoperative analgesia on major postoperative complications: a systematic update of the evidence. Anesth Analg. 2007;104(3):689–702.
Qaseem A et al. Risk assessment for and strategies to reduce perioperative pulmonary complications for patients undergoing noncardiothoracic surgery: a guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144(8):575–80.
Gruber EM et al. The effects of thoracic epidural analgesia with bupivacaine 0.25% on ventilatory mechanics in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Anesth Analg. 2001;92(4):1015–9.
Groeben H et al. Lung function under high thoracic segmental epidural anesthesia with ropivacaine or bupivacaine in patients with severe obstructive pulmonary disease undergoing breast surgery. Anesthesiology. 2002;96(3):536–41.
Ballantyne JC et al. The comparative effects of postoperative analgesic therapies on pulmonary outcome: cumulative meta-analyses of randomized, controlled trials. Anesth Analg. 1998;86(3):598–612.
Liu SS, Block BM, Wu CL. Effects of perioperative central neuraxial analgesia on outcome after coronary artery bypass surgery: a meta-analysis. Anesthesiology. 2004;101(1):153–61.
Werawatganon T, Charuluxanun S. Patient controlled intravenous opioid analgesia versus continuous epidural analgesia for pain after intra-abdominal surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(1):CD004088.
Choi PT, et al. Epidural analgesia for pain relief following hip or knee replacement. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(3):CD003071.
Park WY, Thompson JS, Lee KK. Effect of epidural anesthesia and analgesia on perioperative outcome: a randomized, controlled Veterans Affairs cooperative study. Ann Surg. 2001;234(4):560–9,discussion 569–71.
Rigg JR et al. Epidural anaesthesia and analgesia and outcome of major surgery: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2002;359(9314):1276–82.
Marret E, Remy C, Bonnet F. Meta-analysis of epidural analgesia versus parenteral opioid analgesia after colorectal surgery. Br J Surg. 2007;94(6):665–73.
Gendall KA et al. The effect of epidural analgesia on postoperative outcome after colorectal surgery. Colorectal Dis. 2007;9(7):584–98,discussion 598–600.
Taqi A et al. Thoracic epidural analgesia facilitates the restoration of bowel function and dietary intake in patients undergoing laparoscopic colon resection using a traditional, nonaccelerated, perioperative care program. Surg Endosc. 2007;21(2):247–52.
Zingg U et al. Influence of thoracic epidural analgesia on postoperative pain relief and ileus after laparoscopic colorectal resection: Benefit with epidural analgesia. Surg Endosc. 2009;23(2):276–82.
Borgeat A, Ekatodramis G, Schenker CA. Postoperative nausea and vomiting in regional anesthesia: a review. Anesthesiology. 2003;98(2):530–47.
Muraskin SI et al. Falls associated with lower-extremity-nerve blocks: a pilot investigation of mechanisms. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2007;32(1):67–72.
Hartrick CT et al. Evaluation of a single-dose, extended-release epidural morphine formulation for pain after knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006;88(2):273–81.
Borgeat A. The role of regional anesthesia in patient outcome: orthopedic surgery. Techn Reg Anesth Pain Manag. 2008;12(4):178–82.
Fowler SJ et al. Epidural analgesia compared with peripheral nerve blockade after major knee surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Br J Anaesth. 2008;100(2):154–64.
Williams BA et al. Femoral-sciatic nerve blocks for complex outpatient knee surgery are associated with less postoperative pain before same-day discharge: a review of 1,200 consecutive cases from the period 1996–1999. Anesthesiology. 2003;98(5):1206–13.
Capdevila X, Ponrouch M, Morau D. The role of regional anesthesia in patient outcome: ambulatory surgery. Techn Reg Anesth Pain Manag. 2008;12(4):194–8.
Klein SM et al. Peripheral nerve blockade with long-acting local anesthetics: a survey of the Society for Ambulatory Anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2002;94(1):71–6.
Liu SS et al. A comparison of regional versus general anesthesia for ambulatory anesthesia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Anesth Analg. 2005;101(6):1634–42.
Klein SM et al. Interscalene brachial plexus block with a continuous catheter insertion system and a disposable infusion pump. Anesth Analg. 2000;91(6):1473–8.
Richardson J et al. A prospective, randomized comparison of preoperative and continuous balanced epidural or paravertebral bupivacaine on post-thoracotomy pain, pulmonary function and stress responses. Br J Anaesth. 1999;83(3):387–92.
Joshi GP et al. A systematic review of randomized trials evaluating regional techniques for postthoracotomy analgesia. Anesth Analg. 2008;107(3):1026–40.
Gottschalk A et al. Preventing and treating pain after thoracic surgery. Anesthesiology. 2006;104(3):594–600.
Obata H et al. Epidural block with mepivacaine before surgery reduces long-term post-thoracotomy pain. Can J Anaesth. 1999;46(12):1127–32.
Senturk M et al. The effects of three different analgesia techniques on long-term postthoracotomy pain. Anesth Analg. 2002;94(1):11–5, table of contents.
Bong CL et al. Effects of preemptive epidural analgesia on post-thoracotomy pain. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2005;19(6):786–93.
Buvanendran A. Regional anesthesia and analgesia: prevention of chronic pain. Techn Reg Anesth Pain Manag. 2008;12(4):199–202.
Bach S, Noreng MF, Tjellden NU. Phantom limb pain in amputees during the first 12 months following limb amputation, after preoperative lumbar epidural blockade. Pain. 1988;33(3):297–301.
Schug SA et al. Pre-emptive epidural analgesia may prevent phantom limb pain. Reg Anesth. 1995;20(3):256.
Ong BY, Arneja A, Ong EW. Effects of anesthesia on pain after lower-limb amputation. J Clin Anesth. 2006;18(8):600–4.
Lambert A et al. Randomized prospective study comparing preoperative epidural and intraoperative perineural analgesia for the prevention of postoperative stump and phantom limb pain following major amputation. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2001;26(4):316–21.
Conlon NP, Shaw AD, Grichnik KP. Postthoracotomy paravertebral analgesia: will it replace epidural analgesia? Anesthesiol Clin. 2008;26(2):369–80,viii.
Lavand’homme P, De Kock M, Waterloos H. Intraoperative epidural analgesia combined with ketamine provides effective preventive analgesia in patients undergoing major digestive surgery. Anesthesiology. 2005;103(4):813–20.
Lavand’homme P, De Kock M. The use of intraoperative epidural or spinal analgesia modulates postoperative hyperalgesia and reduces residual pain after major abdominal surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 2006;57(4):373–9.
Brandsborg B et al. Risk factors for chronic pain after hysterectomy: a nationwide questionnaire and database study. Anesthesiology. 2007;106(5):1003–12.
Nikolajsen L et al. Chronic pain following Caesarean section. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2004;48(1):111–6.
Moller JT et al. Long-term postoperative cognitive dysfunction in the elderly ISPOCD1 study. ISPOCD investigators. International Study of Post-Operative Cognitive Dysfunction. Lancet. 1998;351(9106):857–61.
Inouye SK, Schlesinger MJ, Lydon TJ. Delirium: a symptom of how hospital care is failing older persons and a window to improve quality of hospital care. Am J Med. 1999;106(5):565–73.
Rasmussen LS et al. Does anaesthesia cause postoperative cognitive dysfunction? A randomised study of regional versus general anaesthesia in 438 elderly patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003;47(3):260–6.
Wu CL et al. Postoperative cognitive function as an outcome of regional anesthesia and analgesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2004;29(3):257–68.
Jankowski C. Continiuous peripheral nerve block analgesia and central neuraxial anesthesia are associated with reduced incidence of postoperative delirium in the elderly. Anesthesiology. 2005;103:A1467.
Liu SS, Wu CL. The effect of analgesic technique on postoperative patient-reported outcomes including analgesia: a systematic review. Anesth Analg. 2007;105(3):789–808.
Richman JM et al. Does continuous peripheral nerve block provide superior pain control to opioids? A meta-analysis. Anesth Analg. 2006;102(1):248–57.
Rubin HR. Can patients evaluate the quality of hospital care? Med Care Rev. 1990;47(3):267–326.
Wu CL, Naqibuddin M, Fleisher LA. Measurement of patient satisfaction as an outcome of regional anesthesia and analgesia: a systematic review. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2001;26(3):196–208.
Linder-Pelz SU. Toward a theory of patient satisfaction. Soc Sci Med. 1982;16(5):577–82.
Brull R et al. Neurological complications after regional anesthesia: contemporary estimates of risk. Anesth Analg. 2007;104(4):965–74.
Auroy Y et al. Serious complications related to regional anesthesia: results of a prospective survey in France. Anesthesiology. 1997;87(3):479–86.
Auroy Y et al. Major complications of regional anesthesia in France: The SOS Regional Anesthesia Hotline Service. Anesthesiology. 2002;97(5):1274–80.
Capdevila X et al. Continuous peripheral nerve blocks in hospital wards after orthopedic surgery: a multicenter prospective analysis of the quality of postoperative analgesia and complications in 1,416 patients. Anesthesiology. 2005;103(5):1035–45.
Borgeat A et al. Evaluation of the lateral modified approach for continuous interscalene block after shoulder surgery. Anesthesiology. 2003;99(2):436–42.
Hebl JR. The importance and implications of aseptic techniques during regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006;31(4):311–23.
Wedel DJ, Horlocker TT. Regional anesthesia in the febrile or infected patient. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006;31(4):324–33.
Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ. Regional anesthesia in the immunocompromised patient. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006;31(4):334–45.
Rathmell JP, Lake T, Ramundo MB. Infectious risks of chronic pain treatments: injection therapy, surgical implants, and intradiscal techniques. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006;31(4):346–52.
Sellors JE, Cyna AM, Simmons SW. Aseptic precautions for inserting an epidural catheter: a survey of obstetric anaesthetists. Anaesthesia. 2002;57(6):593–6.
Olsen RJ et al. Examination gloves as barriers to hand contamination in clinical practice. JAMA. 1993;270(3):350–3.
Schneeberger PM, Janssen M, Voss A. Alpha-hemolytic streptococci: a major pathogen of iatrogenic meningitis following lumbar puncture. Case reports and a review of the literature. Infection. 1996;24(1):29–33.
North JB, Brophy BP. Epidural abscess: a hazard of spinal epidural anaesthesia. Aust N Z J Surg. 1979;49(4):484–5.
Langevin PB et al. Epidural catheter reconnection. Safe and unsafe practice. Anesthesiology. 1996;85(4):883–8.
Kinirons B et al. Chlorhexidine versus povidone iodine in preventing colonization of continuous epidural catheters in children: a randomized, controlled trial. Anesthesiology. 2001;94(2):239–44.
Sato S, Sakuragi T, Dan K. Human skin flora as a potential source of epidural abscess. Anesthesiology. 1996;85(6):1276–82.
Birnbach DJ et al. Comparison of povidone iodine and DuraPrep, an iodophor-in-isopropyl alcohol solution, for skin disinfection prior to epidural catheter insertion in parturients. Anesthesiology. 2003;98(1):164–9.
Selwyn S, Ellis H. Skin bacteria and skin disinfection reconsidered. Br Med J. 1972;1(5793):136–40.
Mimoz O et al. Chlorhexidine compared with povidone-iodine as skin preparation before blood culture: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1999;131(11):834–7.
Maki DG, Ringer M, Alvarado CJ. Prospective randomised trial of povidone-iodine, alcohol, and chlorhexidine for prevention of infection associated with central venous and arterial catheters. Lancet. 1991;338(8763):339–43.
Sakuragi T, Yanagisawa K, Dan K. Bactericidal activity of skin disinfectants on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Anesth Analg. 1995;81(3):555–8.
Gibson KL et al. Comparison of two pre-surgical skin preparation techniques. Can J Vet Res. 1997;61(2):154–6.
Haley CE et al. Bactericidal activity of antiseptics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol. 1985;21(6):991–2.
Guzel A et al. Evaluation of the skin flora after chlorhexidine and povidone-iodine preparation in neurosurgical practice. Surg Neurol. 2009;71(2):207–10, discussion 210.
Moen MD, Noone MB, Kirson I. Povidone-iodine spray technique versus traditional scrub-paint technique for preoperative abdominal wall preparation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187(6):1434–6, discussion 1436–7.
Robins K et al. Chlorhexidine spray versus single use sachets for skin preparation before regional nerve blockade for elective caesarean section: an effectiveness, time and cost study. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2005;14(3):189–92.
Birnbach DJ et al. Povidone iodine and skin disinfection before initiation of epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1998;88(3):668–72.
Shapiro JM, Bond EL, Garman JK. Use of a chlorhexidine dressing to reduce microbial colonization of epidural catheters. Anesthesiology. 1990;73(4):625–31.
Mann TJ et al. The effect of the biopatch, a chlorhexidine impregnated dressing, on bacterial colonization of epidural catheter exit sites. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2001;29(6):600–3.
Liu S, Carpenter RL, Neal JM. Epidural anesthesia and analgesia. Their role in postoperative outcome. Anesthesiology. 1995;82(6):1474–506.
Adams HA et al. Postoperative pain management in orthopaedic patients: no differences in pain score, but improved stress control by epidural anaesthesia. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2002;19(9):658–65.
Aromaa U, Lahdensuu M, Cozanitis DA. Severe complications associated with epidural and spinal anaesthesias in Finland 1987–1993. A study based on patient insurance claims [see comment]. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;41(4):445–52.
Wang LP, Hauerberg J, Schmidt JF. Incidence of spinal epidural abscess after epidural analgesia: a national 1-year survey. Anesthesiology. 1999;91(6):1928–36.
Moen V, Dahlgren N, Irestedt L. Severe neurological complications after central neuraxial blockades in Sweden 1990–1999. Anesthesiology. 2004;101(4):950–9.
Strafford MA, Wilder RT, Berde CB. The risk of infection from epidural analgesia in children: a review of 1620 cases. Anesth Analg. 1995;80(2):234–8.
Strong WE. Epidural abscess associated with epidural catheterization: a rare event? Report of two cases with markedly delayed presentation. Anesthesiology. 1991;74(5):943–6.
Bader AM, Camann WR, Datta S. Anesthesia for cesarean delivery in patients with herpes simplex virus type-2 infections. Reg Anesth. 1990;15(5):261–3.
Crosby ET, Halpern SH, Rolbin SH. Epidural anaesthesia for caesarean section in patients with active recurrent genital herpes simplex infections: a retrospective review. Can J Anaesth. 1989;36(6):701–4.
Ramanathan S, Sheth R, Turndorf H. Anesthesia for cesarean section in patients with genital herpes infections: a retrospective study. Anesthesiology. 1986;64(6):807–9.
Schifitto G et al. Incidence of and risk factors for HIV-associated distal sensory polyneuropathy. Neurology. 2002;58(12):1764–8.
Hughes SC et al. Parturients infected with human immunodeficiency virus and regional anesthesia: clinical and immunologic response. Anesthesiology. 1995;82(1):32–7.
Avidan MS et al. Low complication rate associated with cesarean section under spinal anesthesia for HIV-1-infected women on antiretroviral therapy. Anesthesiology. 2002;97(2):320–4.
Bremerich DH et al. Anesthetic regimen for HIV positive parturients undergoing elective cesarean section. Anaesthesist. 2003;52(12):1124–31.
Tom DJ et al. Epidural blood patch in the HIV-positive patient. Review of clinical experience. San Diego HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center. Anesthesiology. 1992;76(6):943–7.
Shapiro HM. Epidural blood patch is contraindicated in HIV-positive patients. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1994;3(3):168–9.
Newman P, Carrington D, Clarke J. Epidural blood patch is contraindicated in HIV-positive patients. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1994;3(3):167–8.
Bick RL. Coagulation abnormalities in malignancy: a review. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1992;18(4):353–72.
Nseir S et al. Fatal streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis as a complication of axillary brachial plexus block. Br J Anaesth. 2004;92(3):427–9.
Kane RE. Neurologic deficits following epidural or spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1981;60(3):150–61.
Carp H, Bailey S. The association between meningitis and dural puncture in bacteremic rats. Anesthesiology. 1992;76(5):739–42.
Eng RH, Seligman SJ. Lumbar puncture-induced meningitis. JAMA. 1981;245(14):1456–9.
Smith KM, Deddish RB, Ogata ES. Meningitis associated with serial lumbar punctures and post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus. J Pediatr. 1986;109(6):1057–60.
Teele DW et al. Meningitis after lumbar puncture in children with bacteremia. N Engl J Med. 1981;305(18):1079–81.
Ready LB, Helfer D. Bacterial meningitis in parturients after epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1989;71(6):988–90.
Baker AS et al. Spinal epidural abscess. N Engl J Med. 1975;293(10):463–8.
Dahlgren N, Tornebrandt K. Neurological complications after anaesthesia. A follow-up of 18,000 spinal and epidural anaesthetics performed over three years. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1995;39(7):872–80.
Kindler C et al. Extradural abscess complicating lumbar extradural anaesthesia and analgesia in an obstetric patient. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1996;40(7):858–61.
Bader AM et al. Regional anesthesia in women with chorioamnionitis. Reg Anesth. 1992;17(2):84–6.
Goodman EJ, DeHorta E, Taguiam JM. Safety of spinal and epidural anesthesia in parturients with chorioamnionitis. Reg Anesth. 1996;21(5):436–41.
Scott DB, Hibbard BM. Serious non-fatal complications associated with extradural block in obstetric practice. Br J Anaesth. 1990;64(5):537–41.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Barton, J., Grant, S.A. (2012). Outcome Studies and Infection Control in Regional Anesthesia. In: Kaye, A., Urman, R., Vadivelu, N. (eds) Essentials of Regional Anesthesia. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1013-3_30
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1013-3_30
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-1012-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-1013-3
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)