Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Traumatic Optic Neuropathies

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Optic Nerve Disorders

Abstract

Deceleration injury directed to the ipsilateral forehead or to the midface region from motor vehicle and bicycle accidents is the most common cause of traumatic optic neuropathy. Optic nerve injuries are usually classified as being direct or indirect injuries. Direct injuries involve an external object penetrating the optic nerve, whereas indirect injuries occur when the force of collision is transferred to the skull and partially absorbed by the optic nerve. The most common optic nerve injuries involve indirect injury to the posterior or intracanalicular portion of the optic nerve. In addition to head trauma, traumatic optic neuropathy can also be a complication of ocular or endoscopic sinus surgical procedures.

Decreased best corrected visual acuity and a relative afferent pupillary defect (RAPD), without other ocular pathology that could account for the visual loss, would support the diagnosis of traumatic optic neuropathy affecting the posterior orbital, intracanalicular, or intracranial portion of the optic nerve. Optical coherence tomography is able to assess and monitor axonal loss after traumatic optic neuropathy. If the patient is unconscious or if the RAPD is absent in bilateral cases, visual evoked potentials may help in confirming the suspicion of traumatic optic neuropathy, especially in comatose patients. Neuroimaging may also help in localizing the site of optic nerve injury.

There is a relatively high rate of spontaneous visual recovery in traumatic optic neuropathy. No convincing data yet supports that high-dose methylprednisolone nor optic nerve sheath decompression provides any additional visual benefit over observation alone. Corticosteroids may also inhibit inherent neuroprotective processes. The management of each case needs to be assessed on an individual basis.

Strategies for optic nerve rescue and regeneration include peripheral nerve grafts and stem cell transplantation into the retina, which requires the creation of an environment permissive to axon regrowth and the promotion of axon regrowth with nerve growth factors. These transplanted cells then need to form functional synapses with retinal interneurons and their target neurons in the brain, preserving the retinotopic organization of the visual pathway. Neuroprotective agents can also enhance retinal ganglion cell survival.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Steinsapir KD, Goldberg RA. Traumatic optic neuropathy. Surv Ophthalmol. 1994;38(6):487–518.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Al-Qurainy IA, Stassen LF, Dutton GN, Moos KF, el-Attar A. The characteristics of midfacial fractures and the association with ocular injury: a prospective study. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1991;29(5):291–301.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Edmund J, Godfretsen E. Unilateral optic atrophy following head injury. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1963;41:693–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Seiff SR. High dose corticosteroids for treatment of vision loss due to indirect injury to the optic nerve. Ophthalmic Surg. 1990;21(6):389–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Levin LA, Joseph MP, Rizzo III JF, Lessell S. Optic canal decompression in indirect optic nerve trauma. Ophthalmology. 1994;101(3):566–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Lessell S. Indirect optic nerve trauma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107(3):382–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Spoor TC. Treatment of optic neuropathy with megadose corticosteroids. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986; 104(11):1585.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Mauriello JA, DeLuca J, Krieger A, Schulder M, Frohman L. Management of traumatic optic neuropathy: a study of 23 patients. Br J Ophthalmol. 1992;76(6):349–52.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Steinsapir KD, Goldberg RA. Traumatic optic neuropathies. In: Miller NR, Newman NJ, editors. Walsh and Hoyt’s clinical neuro-ophthalmology. 5th ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1998. p. 715–40.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Sadun AA. Anatomy and physiology of the optic nerve. In: Miller NR, Newman NJ, editors. Walsh and Hoyt’s clinical neuro-ophthalmology. 5th ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1998. p. 57–83.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Lang J. Clinical anatomy of the nose, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses. Stuttgart: Thieme Verlag; 1989. p. 85–98. 125–8.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Bilyk JR, Joseph MP. Traumatic optic neuropathy. Semin Ophthalmol. 1994;9(3):200–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Hupp SL, Buckley EG, Byrne SF, Tenzel RR, Glaser JS, Schatz NS. Posttraumatic venous obstructive retinopathy associated with enlarged optic nerve sheath. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102(2):254–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Guy J, Sherwood M, Day AL. Surgical treatment of progressive visual loss in traumatic optic neuropathy. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg. 1989;70(5): 799–801.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Lessell S. Traumatic optic neuropathy and visual system injury. In: Shingleton BJ, Hersh PS, Kenyon KR, editors. Eye trauma. St. Louis: Mosby; 1991. p. 371–9.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Gross CE, DeKock JR, Panje WR, Hershkowitz N, Newman J. Evidence for orbital deformation that may contribute to monocular blindness following minor frontal head trauma. J Neurosurg. 1981;55(6): 963–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Anderson RL, Panje WR, Gross CE. Optic nerve blindness following blunt forehead trauma. Ophthalmology. 1982;89(5):445–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Crompton MR. Visual lesions in closed head injury. Brain. 1970;93(4):785–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Frenkel RE, Spoor TC. Diagnosis and management of traumatic optic neuropathies. Adv Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 1987;6:71–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Krauss HR, Yee RD, Foos RY. Autoenucleation. Surv Ophthalmol. 1984;29(3):179–87.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Goodhart SP. Avulsion of both eyeballs and extraction of teeth: self-mutilation in chronic encephalitis. Am J Med Sci. 1933;185:674–84.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Coppez H, Surle S. Pseudo-corps estrangers de l'oeil. Arch Ophthalmol. 1929;46:449–57.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Park JH, Frenkel M, Dobbie JG, Choromokos E. Evulsion of the optic nerve. Am J Ophthalmol. 1971;72(5):969–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Hedges III TR, Gragoudas ES. Traumatic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Ann Ophthalmol. 1981; 13(5):625–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Crowe NW, Nickles TP, Troost BT, Elster AD. Intrachiasmal hemorrhage: a cause of delayed post-traumatic blindness. Neurology. 1989;39(6):863–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Manor RS, Cohen S, Svetliza E, Ben SI. Papilledema in traumatic lesion of optic nerve with amaurosis. J Clin Neuro Ophthalmol. 1986;6(2):100–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Holmes MD, Sires BS. Flash visual evoked potentials predict visual outcome in traumatic optic neuropathy. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004; 20(5):342–6.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Cornelius CP, Altenmuller E, Ehrenfeld M. The use of flash visual evoked potentials in the early diagnosis of suspected optic nerve lesions due to craniofacial trauma. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 1996;24(1): 1–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Jayle GE, Tassy AF. Prognostic value of the electroretinogram in severe recent ocular trauma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1970;54(1):51–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Hooper RS. Orbital complications of head injury. Br J Surg. 1951;39(154):126–38.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Hughes B. Indirect injury of the optic nerves and chiasma. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1962;111: 98–126.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Turner JWA. Indirect injury of the optic nerves. Brain. 1943;66:140–51.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Medeiros FA, Sample PA, Zangwill LM, Bowd C, Aihara M, Weinreb RN. Corneal thickness as a risk factor for visual field loss in patients with preperimetric glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(5):805–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Lundstrom M, Frisen L. Evolution of descending optic atrophy. A case report. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1975;53(5):738–46.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Miyahara T, Kurimoto Y, Kurokawa T, Kuroda T, Yoshimura N. Alterations in retinal nerve fiber layer thickness following indirect traumatic optic neuropathy detected by nerve fiber analyzer, GDx-N. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(2):361–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Keane JR, Baloh RW. Posttraumatic cranial neuropathies. Neurol Clin. 1992;10(4):849–67.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Wang ML, Seiff SR, Drasner K. A comparison of visual outcome in open-globe repair: succinylcholine with d-tubocurarine vs nondepolarizing agents. Ophthalmic Surg. 1992;23(11):746–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Seiff SR, Berger MS, Guyon J, Pitts LH. Computed tomographic evaluation of the optic canal in sudden traumatic blindness. Am J Ophthalmol. 1984;98(6): 751–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Tang RA, Kramer LA, Schiffman J, Woon C, Hayman LA, Pardo G. Chiasmal trauma: clinical and imaging considerations. Surv Ophthalmol. 1994; 38(4):381–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Moffit B, Duffy K, Lufkin R, Frazee J, Vinuela F, Bentson J. MR imaging of intrachiasmatic hemorrhage. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1988;12(3):535–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Levin LA, Rubin PA. Advances in orbital imaging. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1992;32(3):1–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Kline LB, McCluskey MM, Skalka HW. Imaging techniques in optic nerve evulsion. J Clin Neuro Ophthalmol. 1988;8(4):281–2.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Talwar D, Kumar A, Verma L, Tewari HK, Khosla PK. Ultrasonography in optic nerve head avulsion. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1991;69(1):121–3.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Guthoff RF, Berger RW, Winkler P, Helmke K, Chumbley LC. Doppler ultrasonography of the ophthalmic and central retinal vessels. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991;109(4):532–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Erickson SJ, Hendrix LE, Massaro BM, et al. Color Doppler flow imaging of the normal and abnormal orbit. Radiology. 1989;173(2):511–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Millesi W, Hollmann K, Funder J. Traumatic lesion of the optic nerve. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1988; 93(1–2):50–4.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Tang R, Li H, Regner V. Traumatic optic neuropathy: analysis of 37 cases. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Carta A, Ferrigno L, Salvo M, Bianchi-Marzoli S, Boschi A, Carta F. Visual prognosis after indirect traumatic optic neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74(2):246–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Brodsky MC, Wald KJ, Chen S, Weiter JJ. Protracted posttraumatic optic disc swelling. Ophthalmology. 1995;102(11):1628–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Povlishock JT, Becker DP, Cheng CL, Vaughan GW. Axonal change in minor head injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1983;42(3):225–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Buchi ER. Cell death in the rat retina after a pressure-induced ischaemia-reperfusion insult: an electron microscopic study. I. Ganglion cell layer and inner nuclear layer. Exp Eye Res. 1992;55(4):605–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Garcia-Valenzuela E, Gorczyca W, Darzynkiewicz Z, Sharma SC. Apoptosis in adult retinal ganglion cells after axotomy. J Neurobiol. 1994;25(4):431–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Levin LA, Louhab A. Apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells in anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114(4):488–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Vorwerk CK, Zurakowski D, McDermott LM, Mawrin C, Dreyer EB. Effects of axonal injury on ganglion cell survival and glutamate homeostasis. Brain Res Bull. 2004;62(6):485–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Solary E, Eymin B, Droin N, Haugg M. Proteases, proteolysis, and apoptosis. Cell Biol Toxicol. 1998;14(2):121–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Dugan LL, Sensi SL, Canzoniero LM, et al. Mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species in cortical neurons following exposure to methyl-d-aspartate. J Neurosci. 1995;15(10):6377–88.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Fehsel K, Kroncke KD, Meyer KL, Huber H, Wahn V, Kolb-Bachofen V. Nitric oxide induces apoptosis in mouse thymocytes. J Immunol. 1995;155(6): 2858–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Greenlund LJ, Korsmeyer SJ, Johnson Jr EM. Role of BCL-2 in the survival and function of developing and mature sympathetic neurons. Neuron. 1995; 15(3):649–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Messmer UK, Ankarcrona M, Nicotera P, Brune B. p53 expression in nitric oxide-induced apoptosis. FEBS Lett. 1994;355(1):23–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Lau KC, So KF, Tay D, Leung MC. NADPH-diaphorase neurons in the retina of the hamster. J Comp Neurol. 1994;350(4):550–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Kuehn MH, Fingert JH, Kwon YH. Retinal ganglion cell death in glaucoma: mechanisms and neuroprotective strategies. Ophthalmol Clin N Am. 2005; 18(3):383–95.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Kanellopoulos GK, Xu XM, Hsu CY, Lu X, Sundt TM, Kouchoukos NT. White matter injury in spinal cord ischemia: protection by AMPA/ kainite glutamate receptor antagonism. Stroke. 2000;31(8):1945–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Schuettauf F, Naskar R, Vorwerk CK, Zurakowski D, Dreyer EB. Ganglion cell loss after optic nerve crush mediated through AMPA-kainate and NMDA receptors. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41(13): 4313–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. N Engl J Med. 1990;322(20):1405–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Levin LA, Beck RW, Joseph MP, Seiff S, Kraker R. The treatment of traumatic optic neuropathy: the International Optic Nerve Trauma Study. Ophthalmology. 1999;106(7):1268–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Steinsapir KD, Goldberg RA, Sinha S, Hovda DA. Methylprednisolone exacerbates axonal loss following optic nerve trauma in rats. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2000;17(4):157–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Steinsapir KD, Seiff SR, Goldberg RA. Traumatic optic neuropathy: where do we stand? Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;18(3):232–4.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Ohlsson M, Westerlund U, Langmoen IA, Svensson M. Methylprednisolone treatment does not influence axonal regeneration or degeneration following optic nerve injury in the adult rat. J Neuroophthalmol. 2004;24(1):11–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Roberts I, Yates D, Sandercock P, et al. CRASH trial collaborators. Effect of intravenous corticosteroids on death within 14 days in 10,008 adults with clinically significant head injury (MRC CRASH trial): randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;364(9442):1321–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Bracken MB. CRASH (corticosteroid randomization after significant head injury trial): landmark and storm warning. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(6):1300–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Ben Simon GJ, Hovda DA, Harris NG, Gomez-Pinilla F, Goldberg RA. Traumatic brain injury induced neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells to optic nerve crush. J Neurotrauma. 2006;7 :1072–82.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Kayan A, Earl CJ. Compressive lesions of the optic nerves and chiasm. Pattern of recovery of vision following surgical treatment. Brain. 1975;98(1): 13–28.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. McDonald WI. The symptomatology of tumours of the anterior visual pathways. Can J Neurol Sci. 1982;9(4):381–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. McCann JD, Seiff S. Traumatic neuropathies of the optic nerve, optic chiasm, and ocular motor nerves. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 1994;5(6):3–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Fujitani T, Inoue K, Takahashi T, Ikushima K, Asai T. Indirect traumatic optic neuropathy: visual outcome of operative and nonoperative cases. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1986;30(1):125–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Mahapatra AK, Tandon DA. Traumatic optic neuropathy in children: a prospective study. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1993;19(1):34–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Girard BC, Bouzas EA, Lamas G, Soudant J. Visual improvement after transethmoid-sphenoid decompression in optic nerve injuries. J Clin Neuro Ophthalmol. 1992;12(3):142–8.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Chou PI, Sadun AA, Chen YC, Su WY, Lin SZ, Lee CC. Clinical experiences in the management of traumatic optic neuropathy. Neuro Ophthalmol. 1996; 16(6):325–36.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Nau HE, Gerhard L, Foerster M, Nahser HC, Reinhardt V, Joka T. Optic nerve trauma: clinical, electrophysiological and histological remarks. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1987;89(1–2):16–27.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Spoor TC, Hartel WC, Lensink DB, Wilkinson MJ. Treatment of traumatic optic neuropathy with corticosteroids. Am J Ophthalmol 1990;110(6):665–9. Erratum in. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;111(4):526.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Steinsapir KD, Goldberg RA. Traumatic optic neuropathy: an evolving understanding. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;151(6):928–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Goldenberg-Cohen N, Miller NR, Repka MX. Traumatic optic neuropathy in children and adolescents. J AAPOS. 2004;8(1):20–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Vidal-Sanz M, Bray GM, Villegas-Pérez MP, Thanos S, Aguayo AJ. Axonal regeneration and synapse formation in the superior colliculus by retinal ganglion cells in the adult rat. J Neurosci. 1987;7(9):2894–909.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Whiteley SJ, Sauvé Y, Avilés-Trigueros M, Vidal-Sanz M, Lund RD. Extent and duration of recovered pupillary light reflex following retinal ganglion cell axon regeneration through peripheral nerve grafts directed to the pretectum in adult rats. Exp Neurol. 1998;154(2):560–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Avilés-Trigueros M, Sauvé Y, Lund RD, Vidal-Sanz M. Selective innervation of retinorecipient brainstem nuclei by retinal ganglion cell axons regenerating through peripheral nerve grafts in adult rats. J Neurosci. 2000;20(1):361–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Vidal-Sanz M, Avilés-Trigueros M, Whiteley SJ, Sauvé Y, Lund RD. Reinnervation of the pretectum in adult rats by regenerated retinal ganglion cell axons: anatomical and functional studies. Prog Brain Res. 2002;137:443–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Limb GA, Salt TE, Munro PM, Moss SE, Khaw PT. In vitro characterization of a spontaneously immortalized human Müller cell line (MIO-M1). Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2002;43(3):864–9.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Lawrence JM, Singhal S, Bhatia B, et al. MIO-M1 cells and similar muller glial cell lines derived from adult human retina exhibit neural stem cell characteristics. Stem Cells. 2007;25(8):2033–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Bull ND, Limb GA, Martin KR. Human Müller stem cell (MIO-M1) transplantation in a rat model of glaucoma: survival, differentiation, and integration. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49(8):3449–56.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Singhal S, Lawrence JM, Bhatia B, et al. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans and microglia prevent migration and integration of grafted Müller stem cells into degenerating retina. Stem Cells. 2008;26(4): 1074–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Wang SW, Mu X, Bowers WJ, et al. Brn3b/Brn3c double knockout mice reveal an unsuspected role for Brn3c in retinal ganglion cell axon outgrowth. Development. 2002;129(2):467–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Quina LA, Pak W, Lanier J, et al. Brn3a-expressing retinal ganglion cells project specifically to thalamocortical and collicular visual pathways. J Neurosci. 2005;25(50):11595–604.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Surgucheva I, Weisman AD, Goldberg JL, Shnyra A, Surguchov A. Gamma-synuclein as a marker of retinal ganglion cells. Mol Vis. 2008;14:1540–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Pan L, Deng M, Xie X, Gan L. ISL1 and BRN3B co-regulate the differentiation of murine retinal ganglion cells. Development. 2008;135(11):1981–90.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Thanos S, Mey J, Wild M. Treatment of the adult retina with microglia-suppressing factors retards axotomy-induced neuronal degradation and enhances axonal regeneration in vivo and in vitro. J Neurosci. 1993;13(2):455–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Liu B, Chen H, Johns TG, Neufeld AH. Epidermal growth factor receptor activation: an upstream signal for transition of quiescent astrocytes into reactive astrocytes after neural injury. J Neurosci. 2006; 26(28):7532–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Cho KS, Yang L, Lu B, et al. Re-establishing the regenerative potential of central nervous system axons in postnatal mice. J Cell Sci. 2005;118(Pt 5):863–72.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Cho KS, Chen DF. Promoting optic nerve regeneration in adult mice with pharmaceutical approach. Neurochem Res. 2008;33(10):2126–33.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Manabe S, Gu Z, Lipton SA. Activation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 via neuronal nitric oxide synthase contributes to NMDA-induced retinal ganglion cell death. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(12): 4747–53.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Müller A, Hauk TG, Leibinger M, Marienfeld R, Fischer D. Exogenous CNTF stimulates axon regeneration of retinal ganglion cells partially via endogenous CNTF. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2009;41(2):233–46.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Sapieha PS, Peltier M, Rendahl KG, Manning WC, Di Polo A. Fibroblast growth factor-2 gene delivery stimulates axon growth by adult retinal ganglion cells after acute optic nerve injury. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2003;24(3):656–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. de Melo Reis RA, Cabral-da-Silva MC, de Mello FG, Taylor JS. Müller glia factors induce survival and neuritogenesis of peripheral and central neurons. Brain Res. 2008;1205:1–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Agudo M, Yip P, Davies M, et al. A retinoic acid receptor beta agonist (CD2019) overcomes inhibition of axonal outgrowth via phosphoinositide 3-kinase signalling in the injured adult spinal cord. Neurobiol Dis. 2010;37(1):147–55.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Charalambous P, Hurst LA, Thanos S. Engrafted chicken neural tube-derived stem cells support the innate propensity for axonal regeneration within the rat optic nerve. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49(8):3513–24.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Li Y, Sauvé Y, Li D, Lund RD, Raisman G. Transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells promote regeneration of cut adult rat optic nerve axons. J Neurosci. 2003;23(21):7783–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Silva GA. Nanotechnology applications and approaches for neuroregeneration and drug delivery to the central nervous system. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1199:221–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Coffey PJ, Girman S, Wang SM, et al. Long-term preservation of cortically dependent visual function in RCS rats by transplantation. Nat Neurosci. 2002;5(1):53–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Parrilla-Reverter G, Agudo M, Sobrado-Calvo P, Salinas-Navarro M, Villegas-Pérez MP, Vidal-Sanz M. Effects of different neurotrophic factors on the survival of retinal ganglion cells after a complete intraorbital nerve crush injury: a quantitative in vivo study. Exp Eye Res. 2009;89(1):32–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Weise J, Isenmann S, Klöcker N, et al. Adenovirus-mediated expression of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) rescues axotomized rat retinal ganglion cells but does not support axonal regeneration in vivo. Neurobiol Dis. 2000;7(3):212–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Schmeer C, Straten G, Kügler S, Gravel C, Bähr M, Isenmann S. Dose-dependent rescue of axotomized rat retinal ganglion cells by adenovirus-mediated expression of glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor in vivo. Eur J Neurosci. 2002;15(4):637–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. van Adel BA, Kostic C, Déglon N, Ball AK, Arsenijevic Y. Delivery of ciliary neurotrophic factor via lentiviral-mediated transfer protects axotomized retinal ganglion cells for an extended period of time. Hum Gene Ther. 2003;14(2):103–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Martin KR, Quigley HA, Zack DJ, et al. Gene therapy with brain-derived neurotrophic factor as a protection: retinal ganglion cells in a rat glaucoma model. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44(10):4357–65.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Leaver SG, Cui Q, Plant GW, et al. AAV-mediated expression of CNTF promotes long-term survival and regeneration of adult rat retinal ganglion cells. Gene Ther. 2006;13(18):1328–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Leaver SG, Cui Q, Bernard O, Harvey AR. Cooperative effects of bcl-2 and AAV-mediated expression of CNTF on retinal ganglion cell survival and axonal regeneration in adult transgenic mice. Eur J Neurosci. 2006;24(12):3323–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Pease ME, Zack DJ, Berlinicke C, et al. Effect of CNTF on retinal ganglion cell survival in experimental glaucoma. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2009;50(5):2194–200.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Ju WK, Lee MY, Hofmann HD, Kirsch M, Chun MH. Expression of CNTF in Müller cells of the rat retina after pressure-induced ischemia. Neuroreport. 1999;10(2):419–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Honjo M, Tanihara H, Kido N, Inatani M, Okazaki K, Honda Y. Expression of ciliary neurotrophic factor activated by retinal Müller cells in eyes with NMDA- and kainic acid-induced neuronal death. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41(2):552–60.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. van Adel BA, Arnold JM, Phipps J, Doering LC, Ball AK. Ciliary neurotrophic factor protects retinal ganglion cells from axotomy-induced apoptosis via modulation of retinal glia in vivo. J Neurobiol. 2005;63(3):215–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Müller A, Hauk TG, Fischer D. Astrocyte-derived CNTF switches mature RGCs to a regenerative state following inflammatory stimulation. Brain. 2007;130(Pt 12):3308–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Yu S, Tanabe T, Dezawa M, Ishikawa H, Yoshimura N. Effects of bone marrow stromal cell injection in an experimental glaucoma model. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;344(4):1071–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Bull ND, Irvine KA, Franklin RJ, Martin KR. Transplanted oligodendrocyte precursor cells reduce neurodegeneration in a model of glaucoma. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2009;50(9):4244–53.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Hill AJ, Zwart I, Samaranayake AN, et al. Rat neurosphere cells protect axotomized rat retinal ganglion cells and facilitate their regeneration. J Neurotrauma. 2009;26(7):1147–56.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Li Y, Li D, Khaw PT, Raisman G. Transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells incorporated into the optic nerve head ensheathe retinal ganglion cell axons: possible relevance to glaucoma. Neurosci Lett. 2008;440(3):251–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Morimoto T, Miyoshi T, Matsuda S, et al. Transcorneal electrical stimulation rescues axotomized retinal ganglion cells by activating endogenous retinal IGF-1 system. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(6):2147–55.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Sato T, Fujikado T, Morimoto T, Matsushita K, Harada T, Tano Y. Effect of electrical stimulation on IGF-1 transcription by L-type calcium channels in cultured retinal Müller cells. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2008;52(3):217–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Cheng L, Sapieha P, Kittlerova P, Hauswirth WW, Di Polo A. TrkB gene transfer protects retinal ganglion cells from axotomy-induced death in vivo. J Neurosci. 2002;22(10):3977–86.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Lebrun-Julien F, Morquette B, Douillette A, Saragovi HU, Di Polo A. Inhibition of p75(NTR) in glia potentiates TrkA-mediated survival of injured retinal ganglion cells. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2009; 40(4):410–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Lebrun-Julien F, Bertrand MJ, De Backer O, et al. ProNGF induces TNF-alpha-dependent death of retinal ganglion cells through a p75NTR non-cell-autonomous signaling pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107(8):3817–22.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Jiao J, Huang X, Feit-Leithman RA, et al. Bcl-2 enhances Ca(2+) signaling to support the intrinsic regenerative capacity of CNS axons. EMBO J. 2005;24(5):1068–78.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Osborne NN. Recent clinical findings with memantine should not mean that the idea of neuroprotection in glaucoma is abandoned. Acta Ophthalmol. 2009; 87(4):450–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Seki M, Lipton SA. Targeting excitotoxic/free radical signaling pathways for therapeutic intervention in glaucoma. Prog Brain Res. 2008;173: 495–510.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Hare WA, WoldeMussie E, Weinreb RN, et al. Efficacy and safety of memantine treatment for reduction of changes associated with experimental glaucoma in monkey, II: structural measures. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45(8):2640–51.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Hare WA, WoldeMussie E, Lai RK, et al. Efficacy and safety of memantine treatment for reduction of changes associated with experimental glaucoma in monkey, I: functional measures. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004 Aug;45(8):2625–39. Erratum in. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45(9):2878.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Kapin MA, Doshi R, Scatton B, DeSantis LM, Chandler ML. Neuroprotective effects of eliprodil in retinal excitotoxicity and ischemia. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40(6):1177–82.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Pang IH, Wexler EM, Nawy S, DeSantis L, Kapin MA. Protection by eliprodil against excitotoxicity in cultured rat retinal ganglion cells. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40(6):1170–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Guo L, Salt TE, Maass A, et al. Assessment of neuroprotective effects of glutamate modulation on glaucoma-related retinal ganglion cell apoptosis in vivo. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(2): 626–33.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Vorwerk CK, Kreutz MR, Dreyer EB, Sabel BA. Systemic l-kynurenine administration partially protects against NMDA, but not kainate-induced degeneration of retinal ganglion cells, and reduces visual discrimination deficits in adults rats. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1996;37(12):2382–92.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Zhang B, Osborne NN. Oxidative-induced retinal degeneration is attenuated by epigallocatechin gallate. Brain Res. 2006;1124(1):176–87.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Quaranta L, Bettelli S, Uva MG, Semeraro F, Turano R, Gandolfo E. Effect of Ginkgo biloba extract on preexisting visual field damage in normal tension glaucoma. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(2):359–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Luna C, Li G, Liton PB, et al. Resveratrol prevents the expression of glaucoma markers induced by chronic oxidative stress in trabecular meshwork cells. Food Chem Toxicol. 2009;47(1):198–204.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Devoto MH, Kersten RC, Zalta AH, Kulwin DR. Optic nerve injury after retrobulbar anesthesia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(5):687–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Dorey SE, Gillespie IH, Barton F, MacSweeney E. Magnetic resonance image changes following optic nerve trauma from peribulbar anaesthetic. Br J Ophthalmol. 1998;82(5):586–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Horton JC, Hoyt WF, Foreman DS, Cohen JA. Confirmation by magnetic resonance imaging of optic nerve injury after retrobulbar anesthesia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114(3):351–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Kim SK, Golden MA, Bradbury MJ, Rizzo JF. First description of optic neuropathy secondary to sub-Tenon’s anesthesia in cataract surgery. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41(4):S314.

    Google Scholar 

  145. Katsev DA, Drews RC, Rose BT. An anatomic study of retrobulbar needle path length. Ophthalmology. 1989;96(8):1221–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Carroll FD. Optic nerve complications of cataract extraction. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1973;77(5):OP623–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Hayreh SS. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. IV. Occurrence after cataract extraction. Arch Ophthalmol. 1980;98(8):1410–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Luscavage LE, Volpe NJ, Liss R. Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy after uncomplicated cataract extraction. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132(3):408–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Michaels DD, Zugsmith GS. Optic neuropathy following cataract extraction. Ann Ophthalmol. 1973;5(3):303–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Serrano LA, Behrens MM, Carroll FD. Post-cataract extraction ischemic optic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1982;100(7):1177–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. McCulley TJ, Lam BL, Feuer WJ. Incidence of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy associated with cataract extraction. Ophthalmology. 2001;108(7):1275–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. McCulley TJ, Lam BL, Feuer WJ. Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy and surgery of the anterior segment: temporal relationship analysis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(6):1171–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Hattenhauer MG, Leavitt JA, Hodge DO, Grill R, Gray DT. Incidence of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123(1):103–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Boldt HC, Munden PM, Folk JC, Mehaffey MG. Visual field defects after macular hole surgery. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122(3):371–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Ezra E, Arden GB, Riordan-Eva P, Aylward GW, Gregor ZJ. Visual field loss following vitrectomy for stage 2 and 3 macular holes. Br J Ophthalmol. 1996;80(6):519–25.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Hutton WL, Fuller DG, Snyder WB, Fellman RL, Swanson WH. Visual field defects after macular hole surgery. A new finding. Ophthalmology. 1996; 103(12):2152–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Kerrison JB, Haller JA, Elman M, Miller NR. Visual field loss following vitreous surgery. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114(5):564–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Melberg NS, Thomas MA. Visual field loss after pars plana vitrectomy with air/fluid exchange. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;120(3):386–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Paques M, Massin P, Santiago PY, Spielmann AC, Gaudric A. Visual field loss after vitrec-tomy for full-thickness macular holes. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;124(1):88–94.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Costa VP, Smith M, Spaeth GL, Gandham S, Markovitz B. Loss of visual acuity after trabeculectomy. Ophthalmology. 1993;100(5):599–612.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Kolker AE. Visual prognosis in advanced glaucoma: a comparison of medical and surgical therapy for retention of vision in 101 eyes with advanced glaucoma. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1977;75:539–55.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Kawasaki A, Purvin V. Unilateral optic disc edema following trabeculectomy. J Neuroophthalmol. 1998;18(2):121–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. DeMere M, Wood T, Austin W. Eye complications with blepharoplasty or other eyelid surgery. A national survey. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1974;53(6):634–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Kelly PW, May DR. Central retinal artery occlusion following cosmetic blepharoplasty. Br J Ophthalmol. 1980;64(12):918–22.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Anderson RL. Bilateral visual loss after blepharoplasty. Arch Ophthalmol. 1981;99(12):2205.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Goldberg RA, Marmor MF, Shorr N, Christen-bury JD. Blindness following blepharoplasty: two case reports, and a discussion of management. Ophthalmic Surg. 1990;21(2):85–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Savino PJ, Burde RM, Mills RP. Visual loss following intranasal anesthetic injection. J Clin Neuro Ophthalmol. 1990;10(2):140–4.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Bolger WE, Keyes AS, Lanza DC. Use of the superior meatus and superior turbinate in the endoscopic approach to the sphenoid sinus. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1999;120(3):308–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Driben JS, Bolger WE, Robles HA, Cable B, Zinreich SJ. The reliability of computerized tomographic detection of the Onodi (spheno-ethmoid) cell. Am J Rhinol. 1998;12(2):105–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology, Neuro-Ophthalmology, University of Nevada School of Medicine, 975 Kirman Avenue (111), Reno, Nevada, 89502, USA

    Jane W. Chan M.D.

Authors
  1. Jane W. Chan M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jane W. Chan M.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology/Neuro-Ophthalmology, University of Nevada School of Medicine, Reno, Nevada, USA

    Jane W. Chan

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Chan, J.W. (2014). Traumatic Optic Neuropathies. In: Chan, J. (eds) Optic Nerve Disorders. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0691-4_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0691-4_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-0690-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-0691-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation