Abstract
The perpetuating assimilationist assumption that ethnic identification eventually disappears over successive generations has led to a general lack of interest in understanding the experiences of long-term migrant communities. However, the experience of long-settled Australian-born Chinese demonstrates that despite having been settled for three, four, five and even six generations in Australia, Chineseness is still a significant part of their identity—whether they willingly choose to identify with it or it is imposed upon them by others. This chapter takes their experiences and investigates how Chineseness is constructed in the context of the family. Ngan discusses how marriage patterns and family contexts have served and continue to serve as important factors for the outcomes of identity for subsequent generations. While Chineseness is frequently criticised as a construct of essentialism, it remains an inerasable attribute for ethnic Chinese in defining and asserting their identities. Using extensive in-depth interview transcripts, Ngan highlights the impact of social environment on the family formation and marriage of early Chinese migrants in Australia. She then explores the influence of the family on identity construction and socialisation of long-settled Australian-born Chinese. Lastly, she examines the construction of identification for Chinese-looking Australians within and across Chinese diasporic communities.
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Notes
- 1.
Although there are many estimates about the exact number of overseas Chinese, figures are imprecise.
- 2.
Under the Qing Court.
- 3.
The term “long-established Australians” was used in the 2001 Census data on ancestry to describe respondents as belonging to a particular generational group. Since this study focuses on the experience of the descendants of Chinese migrants, “Australian” is replaced with “Australian-born Chinese” (ABC) to emphasis their ancestry. It needs to be noted that while the categorisation according to birthplace is conceptually neat, the definition quickly proves problematic in the face of empirical realities, e.g. it is not possible to differentiate between third and higher orders of generation.
- 4.
My purpose is not to categorise individuals according to their racial heritage—the point of such detail is an attempt to illustrate their appearance as they are often identified as Chinese based on their “looks”.
- 5.
Another factor influencing the diversity of the sample particularly in terms of interracial marriage family background arose from the selection method. Because of stated interest in examining how they experienced Chineseness in everyday life, it was inevitable that those who were interested in participating in my study felt they were Chinese even if it was only to the slightest extent. These individuals often came from Chinese families where there were few inter-racial marriages through the generations. Nevertheless, their experiences are significant in providing perspectives and insights into “Chineseness” with respect to generational longevity.
- 6.
30 out of 43 subjects had one or both parents born overseas, with the majority born in Mainland China and Hong Kong, 16 out of 26 non-single subjects have a partner who is first- or second-generation ABC.
- 7.
Egg is a metaphor for Westerners who are knowledgeable about the Chinese culture which includes the ability to speak and write Chinese. The metaphor is based on the stereotypical colour of racial groupings; egg white on the outside and the yellow yolk inside implies Westerners who are identified as “white” are actually Chinese (yellow) internally.
- 8.
Banana is a metaphor for Asians who speak and write English fluently and live a Western way of life. The metaphor is based on the stereotypical colour of racial groupings; yellow skin of the banana on the outside and white flesh inside implies Chinese who are identified as ‘yellow’ are actually very Westernised (white) internally.
- 9.
Eurasian.
- 10.
The conception of such difference is captured by Rodney: “I actually like the term Australian-born Chinese. It signifies that I am not recently off the boat!”.
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Appendix: Biographical Details of Informants
Appendix: Biographical Details of Informants
Details of female informants | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pseudonym | Migratory generationa | Year of birth | Place of birth | Marital status | Intermarriage on informant’s family line | Occupation | Highest level of educational attainmentb |
Ada | 5 | 1940s | Sydney | Divorced | Yes | Admin Assistant; Spiritual Healer | Diploma |
Daisy | 4 | 1950s | Rural NSW | Single | Yes | Lawyer | Bachelor Degree |
Debra | 4 | 1950s | Sydney | Married | No | Housewife | Graduate Diploma |
Dianne | 4 | 1950s | Sydney | Married | Yes | Librarian | Bachelor Degree |
Jane | 3 | 1940s | Sydney | Divorced | No | Admin Assistant | Year 12 |
Janice | 4 | 1960s | Sydney | Married | No | Bank Teller | Year 12 |
Jenny | 6 | 1970s | Sydney | Defacto | Yes | Admin Officer | Masters Degree |
Lilly | 4 | 1940s | Rockhampton (QLD) | Widowed | No | Market Researcher | Year 12 |
Mary | 3 | 1930s | Rural NSW | Widowed | Yes | Housewife | Year 12 |
Sarah | 3 | 1940s | Sydney | Divorced | Yes | Quality Control Auditor | Year 12 |
Vera | 3 | 1960s | Sydney | Divorced | No | Website Development Manager | Bachelor Degree |
Details of male informants | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pseudonyms | Migratory generationa | Date of birth | Place of birth | Marital status | Intermarriage on informant’s family line | Occupation | Highest level of educational attainmentb |
Bill | 5 | 1970s | Sydney | Single | Yes | Recruitment Officer | Year 12 |
Dean | 4 | 1970s | Sydney | Single | No | Equity Finance Analyst | Bachelor Degree |
Don | 4 | 1950s | Sydney | Married | No | Librarian | Graduate Diploma |
Jerry | 3 | 1940s | Sydney | Single | No | Retrenched Government Officer | Matriculation |
Pete | 4 | 1950s | Sydney | Single | Yes | Researcher | PhD |
Rob | 5 | 1950s | Sydney | Married | Yes | Librarian | Graduate Diploma |
Rodney | 3 | 1960s | Richmond (QLD) | Single | No | Chartered Accountant | Masters Degree |
Sean | 4 | 1970s | Sydney | Married | No | Australia Post Officer | Bachelor Degree |
Sunny | 4 | 1960s | Sydney | Single | No | Semi-retired Businessmen; Missionary | Graduate Diploma |
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Lok-sun, L.N. (2013). Family and Marriage: Constructing Chineseness Among Long-Established Australian-Born Chinese. In: Kwok-bun, C. (eds) International Handbook of Chinese Families. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0266-4_8
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