Abstract
Ischemic heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States (Anonymous, 1974a). Previously termed coronary heart disease (Anonymous, 1969), this disease causes about 35% of deaths, twice as many as are caused by malignant neoplasms or cancer. In the United States, risk of ischemic heart disease is higher among men than among women, among smokers of cigarettes than among nonsmokers, among diabetics and among those with certain abnormalities of the electrocardiogram. Risk also increases with age, with blood pressure, and with the concentration of cholesterol in serum (Insull, 1973). The predictive utility of the concentration of cholesterol in serum or plasma (Fredrickson and Levy, 1972) and the identification of many dietary components that can alter these concentrations have been the sources of most interest among nutritionists in the metabolism of cholesterol.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Albanese, A. A., Edelson, A. H., Woodhull, M. L., Lorenze, E. J., Jr., Wein, E. H., and Orto, L. A., 1973, Effects of a calcium supplement on serum cholesterol, calcium, phosphorus and bone density of “normal, healthy” elderly females, Nutr. Rep. Int 8: 119.
Allen, K. G. D., and Klevay, L. M., 1976, Hypercholesterolemia in rats caused by copper deficiency, J. Nutr 106 (7): X XII.
Anderson, J. T., Grande, F., and Keys, A., 1958, Dietary ascorbic acid and serum cholesterol, Fed. Proc 17: 468.
Anderson, J. T., Grande, F., and Keys, A., 1973, Cholesterol-lowering diets, J. Am. Dieter. Assoc 62: 133.
Anon., 1969, Vital Statistics of the United States 1967. Mortality, Vol. 2, Part A, Table 1–7, Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
Anon., 1974a, Vital Statistics of the United States 1970. Mortality, Vol. 2, Part A, Table 1–7, Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
Anon., I974b, Recommended Dietary Allowances, Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., pp. 92–96.
Anon., 1976, The herbs and the heart, Nutr. Rev 34: 43.
Barboriak, J. J., Krehl, W. A., Cowgill, G. R., and Whedon, A. D., 1958, Influence of high-fat diets on growth and development of obesity in the albino rat, J. Nutr 64: 241.
Birenbaum, M. L., Fleischman, A. I., and Raichelson, R. I., 1972, Long term human studies on the lipid effects of oral calcium, Lipids 7: 202.
Brown, E. D., Howard, M. P., and Smith, J. C., Jr., 1977, The copper content of regular, vegetarian, and renal diets, Fed. Proc, 36: 1122.
Burch, R. E., Williams, R. V., Hahn, H. K. J., Jetton, M. M., and Sullivan, J. F., 1975, Serum and tissue enzyme activity and trace-element content in response to zinc deficiency in the pig, Clin. Chem 21: 568.
Burgoon, C. F., Jr., 1975, The skin, in Nelson’s Textbook of Pediatrics ( V. C. Vaughan III, R. J. McKay, and W. E. Nelson, eds.), 10th ed., pp. 1514–1568, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Butler, L. C., and Daniel, J. M., 1973, Copper metabolism in young women fed two levels of copper and two protein sources, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 26: 744.
Call, D. L., and Sanchez, A. M., 1967, Trends in fat disappearance in the United States 1909–65, J. Nutr$193 (Suppl. 1) Part II, 1.
Carlson, L. A., Olsson, A. G., Orb, L., and Rössner, S., 1971, Effects of oral calcium upon serum cholesterol and triglycerides in patients with hyperlipidemia, Atherosclerosis 14: 391.
Cartwright, G. E., 1950, Copper metabolism in human subjects, in Copper Metabolism ( W. D. McElroy and B. Glass, eds.), pp. 274–314, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
Cartwright, G. E., and Wintrobe, M. M., 1964, The question of copper deficiency in man, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 15: 94.
Cartwright, G. E., Hodges, R. E., Gubler, C. J., Mahoney, J. P., Daum, K., Wintrobe, M. M., and Bean, W. B., 1954, Studies on copper metabolism. XIII. Hepatolenticular degeneration, J. Clin. Invest 33: 1487.
Crawford, M. D., Gardner, M. J., and Morris, J. N., 1968, Mortality and hardness of local water supplies, Lancet 1: 827.
Curren, G. L., Azarnoff, D. L., and Bolinger, R. E., 1959, Effect of cholesterol synthesis inhibition in normocholesteremic young men, J. Clin. Invest 38: 1251.
Dahl, L. K., 1960, Effects of chronic excess salt feeding. Elevation of plasma cholesterol in rats and dogs, J. Exp. Med 112: 635.
Darby, W. J., Friberg, L., Mills, C. F., Parizek, J., Ramalingaswami, V., Ronaghy, H. A., Sandstead, H. H., Underwood, E. J., Rao, N. M., Par, R., Bengoa, J. M., DeMaeyer, E. M., and Mertz, W., 1973, Trace Elements in Human Nutrition, Report of a WHO expert committee. World Health Organization Technical Report Series, No. 532 World Health Organization, Geneva, pp. 15–19.
Dayton, S., Pearce, M. L., Hashimoto, S., Dixon, W. J., and Tomiyasu, U., 1969, A controlled clinical trial of a diet high in unsaturated fat, Circulation 39, 40 (Suppl. II): 1.
Doisy, E. A., Jr., 1973, Micronutrient controls on biosynthesis of clotting proteins and cholesterol, in Trace Substances in Environmental Health. VI ( D. D. Hemphill, ed.), pp. 193–199, Univ. of Missouri Press, Columbia.
Dietschy, J. M., and Wilson, J. D., 1970, Regulation of cholesterol metabolism, New Engl. J. Med 282: 1128.
Durfor, C. N., and Becker, E., 1964, Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 1962, Washington, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Supply Paper 1812.
Erdman, J. W., Jr., and Lachance, P. S., 1974, Effect of salt mixture and cholesterol upon rat serum and liver zinc, vitamin A, and cholesterol, Nutr. Rep. Int. 9: 319.
Evans, G. W., 1973, Copper homeostasis in the mammalian system, Physiol. Rev 53: 535.
Fillies, L. C., and Mann, G. F., 1954, Influence of sulfur amino acid deficiency on cholesterol metabolism, Metabolism 3: 16.
Follis, R. H., and Van Itallie, T. B., 1974, Pellagra, in Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine (M. M. Wintrobe, G. W. Thorn, R. D. Adams E Braunwald, K. J. Isselbacher, and R. G. Petersdorf, eds.), pp. 427–430, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Fredrickson, D. S., and Levy, R. I., 1972, Familial hyperlipoproteinemia, in The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease (J. B. Stanbury, J. B. Wyngaarden, and D. S. Fredrickson, eds.), 3rd ed., pp. 545–614. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Friedberg, C. K., 1966, Diseases of the Heart, 3rd ed., pp. 652, 669, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Gipp, W. F., Pond, W. G., Kallfelz, F. A., Tasker, J. B., Van Campen, D. R., Krook, L., and Visek, W. V., 1974, Effect of dietary copper, iron, and ascorbic acid levels on hematology, blood and tissue copper, iron and zinc concentrations and “Cu and 59Fe metabolism in young pigs, J. Nutr 104: 532.
Hambidge, K. M., Hambidge, C., Jacobs, M., and Baum, J. D., 1972, Low levels of zinc in hair, anorexia, poor growth, and hypogeusia in children, Pediat. Res 6: 868.
Hambidge, K. M., Walravens, P. A., Brown, R. M., Webster, J., White, S., Anthony, M., and Roth, M. L., 1976, Zinc nutrition of preschool children in the Denver Head Start program, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 29: 734.
Hartley, T. F., Dawson, J. B., and Hodgkinson, A., 1974, Simultaneous measurement of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, and Zn balances in man, Clin. Chim. Acta 52: 321.
Haslewood, G. A. D., 1963, Bile salts, in Sterols, Bile Acids and Steroids ( M. Florkin and E. H. Stotz, eds.), Vol. 10, pp. 23–31, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Hegsted, D. M., et al,1942–1976, Nutr. Rev 1-34(8).
Hellerstein, E. E., Nakamura, M., Hegsted, D. M., and Vitale, J. J., 1960, Studies on the interrelationships between dietary magnesium, quality and quantity of fat, hypercholesterolemia and lipidosis, J. Nutr 71: 339.
Hodges, R. E., Hood, J., Canham, J. E., Sauberlich, H. E., and Baker, E. M., 1971, Clinical manifestations of ascorbic acid deficiency in man, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 24: 432.
Hopkins, L. L., and Mohr, H. E., 1974, Vanadium as an essential nutrient, Fed. Proc 33: 1773.
Iacono, J. M., 1974, Effect of varying the dietary level of calcium on plasma and tissue lipids of
rabbits, J. Nutr 104:1165.
Ingbar, S. H., and Woeber, K. A., 1974, The thyroid gland, in Textbook of Endocrinology (R. H. Williams, ed.), 5th ed., pp. 95–232, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Insull, W., Jr., 1973, Coronary Risk Handbook, p. 3, American Heart Association, New York. Jacob, R. A., Klevay, L. M., and Thacker, E. J., 1975, Hypercholesterolemia due to meat anemia, Fed Proc 34: 899.
Kahn, H. A., 1970, Change in serum cholesterol associated with changes in the United States civilian diet, 1909–1965, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 23: 879.
Kayden, H. J., and Cox, R. P., 1973, Evidence for normal metabolism and interconversions of unusual fatty acids in acrodermatitis enteropathica, J. Pediat 83: 993.
Klevay, L. M., 1970a, Hair as a biopsy material. I. Assessment of zinc nutriture. Am. J. Clin. Nutr 23: 284.
Klevay, L. M., I970b, Hair as a biopsy material. II. Assessment of copper nutriture. Am. J. Clin. Nutr 23: 1194.
Klevay, L. M., 1973, Hypercholesterolemia in rats produced by an increase in the ratio of zinc to copper ingested, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 26: 1060.
Klevay, L. M., 1974a, An association between the amount of fat and the ratio of zinc to copper in 71 foods: Inferences about the epidemiology of coronary heart disease, Nutr. Rep. Int 9: 393.
Klevay, L. M., 1974b, Lard diets (56.6%) don’t produce hypercholesterolemia in rats unless zinc/copper metabolism is altered, Clin. Res 22: 629A.
Klevay, L. M., 1974c, Coronary heart disease and dietary fiber, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 27: 1202.
Klevay, L. M., 1974d, Interactions among dietary copper, zinc, and the metabolism of cholesterol and phospholipids, in Trace Element Metabolism in Animals (W. G. Hoekstra, J. W. Suttie, H. E. Ganther, and W. Mertz, eds.), Vol. 2, pp. 553–556, University Park Press, Baltimore.
Klevay, L. M., 1975a, The ratio of zinc to copper of diets in the United States, Nutr. Rep. Int 11: 237.
Klevay, L. M., 1975b, The ratio of zinc to copper in milk and mortality due to coronary heart disease: An association, in Trace Substances in Environmental Health. VIII ( D. D. Hemphill, ed.), p. 9, Univ. of Missouri Press, Columbia.
Klevay, L. M., 1975c, Coronary heart disease: The zinc/copper hypothesis, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 28: 764.
Klevay, L. M., 1976a, Hypercholesterolemia due to ascorbic acid, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med 151: 579.
Klevay, L. M., 1976b, Elements of ischemic heart disease, Perspect. Biol. Med 20: 186.
Klevay, L. M., 1976c, Ischemic heart disease: The fiber hypothesis, Proceedings of the Miles Symposium, Nutrition Society of Canada (in press).
Klevay, L. M., and Forbush, J., 1976, Copper metabolism and the epidemiology of coronary heart disease, Nutr. Rep. Int 14: 221.
Klevay, L. M., Evans, G. W., and Sandstead, H. H., 1975, Zinc/copper hypercholesterolemia: The effect of sodium phytate, Clin. Res 23: 460A.
Klevay, L. M., Petering, H. G., and Stemmer, K. L., 1971, A controlled environment for trace metal experiments on animals, Environ. Sci. Technol 5: 1196.
Klevay, L. M., Vo-Khactu, K. P., and Jacob, R. A., 1976, The ratio of zinc to copper of cholesterol-lowering diets, in Trace Substances in Environmental Health. IX ( D. D. Hemphill, ed.), pp. 131–138, Univ. of Missouri Press, Columbia.
Klevay, L. M., Reck, S., and Barcome, D. F., 1977, United States diets and the copper requirement, Fed. Proc, 36: 1175.
Lei, K. Y., 1977, Dietary copper deficiency: Effects on cholesterol metabolism in the rat. Fed. Proc 36: 1151.
Leren, P., 1966, The effect of plasma cholesterol lowering diet in male survivors of myocardial infarction, Acta Med. Scand. Suppl 446: 1.
Leren, P., 1970, The Oslo diet-heart study, eleven-year report, Circulation 42: 935.
Leverton, R. M., and Binkley, E. S., 1944, The copper metabolism and requirement of young women, J. Nutr 27: 43.
Looney, M. A., Lei, K. Y., and Kilgore, L. T., 1977, Effects of dietary fiber, zinc, and copper on serum and liver cholesterol levels in the rat, Fed. Proc, 36: 1134.
Lorenz, K. Z., 1974, Analogy as a source of knowledge, Science 185: 229.
Maibach, E., 1967, Die Beeinflussung des Gesamtcholesterins der /3-Lipoproteide und Gesamtlipide des Serums durch orale und parenterale Calciumzufuhr, Schweiz med. Woch 97: 418.
Maibach, E., 1969, Uber die Beeinflussung des Gesamtocholesterins und der Gesamtlipide im Serum des Menschen durch orale Kalziumzufuhr, Wien. med. Woch 118: 1059.
Mann, G. V., Andrus, S. B., McNally, A., and Stare, F. J., 1953, Experimental atherosclerosis in Cebus monkeys J. Exp. Med. 98:195
McPherson, W. J., 1976, Nickel Catalyst Scavenging Process, Technical Data Sheet No. 2625, Chicago, Illinois, Wurster and Sanger.
Meneely, G. R., and Ball, C. O. T., 1958, Experimental epidemiology of chronic sodium chloride toxicity and the protective effect of potassium chloride, Am. J. Med 25: 713.
Miettinen, M., Turpeinen, O., Karvonen, M. J., Elosuo, R., and Paavilainen, E., 1972, Effect of cholesterol-lowering diet on mortality from coronary heart-disease and other causes, Lancet 2: 835.
Moynahan, E. J., 1974, Acrodermatitis enteropathica: a lethal inherited human zinc-deficiency disorder, Lancet 2: 399.
Neldner, K. H., Hagler, L., Wise, W. R., Stifel, F. B., Lufkin, E. G., and Herman, R. H., 1974, Acrodermatitis enteropathica, Arch. Dermatol. 110: 711.
Neldner, K. H., and Hambidge, K. M., 1975, Zinc therapy of acrodermatitis enteropathica, New Engl. J. Med 292: 879.
Nielsen, F. H., Myron, D. R., Givand, S. H., Zimmerman, T. J., and O11erich, D. A., 1975, Nickel deficiency in rats, J. Nutr 105: 1620.
O’Neal, R. M., Abrahams, O. G., Paulsen, D. S., Lorah, E. J., Eklund, D. L., and Dowdy, R. P., 1977, The relationships of hair zinc to copper ratios with serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels, Fed. Proc, 36: 1122.
Osborn, G. R., 1968, Stages in development of coronary disease observed from 1500 young subjects. Relationship of hypotension and infant feeding to aetiology, in Le rôle de la paroi artérielle dans l’athérogénèse, (M. J. Lenègre, L. Scebat and J. Renais, Eds.), pp. 93–139, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.
Page, L. B., Damon, A., Moellering, R. C., 1974, Antecedents of cardiovascular disease in six Solomon Islands societies, Circulation 49: 1132.
Patel, P. B., Chung, R. A., and Lu, J. Y., 1975, Effect of zinc deficiency on serum and liver cholesterol in the female rat, Nutr. Rep. Int 12: 205.
Pond, W. G., and Walker, E. F., Jr., 1975, Effect of dietary Ca and Cd level of pregnant rats on reproduction and on dam and progeny tissue mineral concentrations, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med 148: 665.
Portnoy, B., and Molokhia, M., 1974, Zinc in acrodermatitis enteropathica, Lancet 2: 663.
Reinhold, J. G., Faradji, B., Abadi, P., and Ismail-Beigi, F., 1976, Binding of zinc to fiber and other solids of whole meal bread, in Trace Elements in Human Health and Disease ( A. S. Prasad and D. Oberleas, eds.), Vol. 1, pp. 163–180, Academic Press, New York.
Rizek, R. L., Friend, B., and Page, L., 1974, Fat in today’s food supply—Level of use and sources, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc 51: 244.
Roe, D. A., 1973, A Plague of Corn, Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, N.Y.
Sandstead, H. H., 1973, Zinc nutrition in the United States, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 26: 1251.
Sandstead, H. H., 1974, Macroelement and trace element deficiencies, in Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine ( M. M. Wintrobe, G. W. Thorn, R. D. Adams, E. Braunwald, K. J. Isselbacher, and R. G. Petersdorf, eds.), pp. 441–443, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Scheinberg, I. H., and Sternlieb, I., 1960, Copper metabolism, Pharmacol. Rev. 12:355. Schroeder, H. A., 1968, Serum cholesterol levels in rats fed thirteen trace elements, J. Nutr 94: 475.
Schroeder, H. A., 1969, Serum cholesterol and glucose levels in rats fed refined and less refined sugars and chromium, J. Nutr 97: 237.
Schroeder, H. A., and Balassa, J. J., 1965, Influence of chromium, cadmium, and lead on rat aortic lipids and circulating cholesterol, Am. J. Physiol 209: 433.
Schroeder, H. A., Nason, A. P., Tipton, I. H., and Balassa, J. J., 1966, Essential trace metals in man: Copper, J. Chron. Dis 19: 1007.
Selye, H., 1964, From Dream to Discovery, p. 104, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Selye, H., 1970, Experimental Cardiovascular Diseases, p. 308. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Sharrett, A. R., and Feinleib, M., 1975, Water constituents and trace elements in relation to cardiovascular disease, Prey. Med 4: 20.
Stamler, J., Pick, R., and Katz, L. M., 1958, Effects of dietary proteins, methionine and vitamins on plasma lipids and atherogenesis in cholesterol fed cockerels, Circ. Res 6: 442.
Staub, H. W., Reussner, G., and Thiessen, R., Jr., 1969, Serum cholesterol reduction by chromium in hypercholesterolemic rats, Science 166: 746.
Terris, M., ed., 1964, Goldberger on Pellagra, Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge.
Trowell, H., 1976, Definition of dietary fiber and hypotheses that it is a protective factor in certain diseases, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 29: 417.
Tsai, C. M. E., and Evans, J. L., 1976, Influence of dietary ascorbic acid and copper on tissue trace elements, cholesterol, and hemoglobin, in Trace Substances in Environmental Health. IX ( D. D. Hemphill, ed.), pp. 441–449, Univ. of Missouri Press, Columbia.
Turpeinen, O., Miettinen, M., Karvonen, M. J., Roione, P., Pekkarinen, M., Lehtosuo, E. J., and Alivirten, P., 1968, Dietary prevention of coronary heart disease: Long-term experiment, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 21: 225.
Vitale, J. J., Velez, H., Guzman, C., and Correa, P., 1963, Magnesium deficiency in the Cebus monkey, Circ. Res 12: 642.
Walravens, P. A., and Hambidge, K. M., 1976, Growth of infants fed a zinc supplemented formula, Am. J. Clin. Nutr 29: 1114.
Whanger, P. D., and Weswig, P. H., 1975, Effects of selenium, chromium, and antioxidants on growth, eye cataracts, plasma cholesterol, and blood glucose in selenium deficient, vitamin E supplemented rats, Nutr. Rep. Int 12: 345.
Wolf, W. R., Holden, J., and Green, F. E., 1977, Daily intake of zinc and copper from self-selected diets, Fed. Proc, 36: 1175.
Yacowitz, H., Fleischman, A. I., and Bierenbaum, M. L., 1965, Effects of oral calcium upon serum lipids in man, Br. Med. J 1: 1352.
Yudkin, J., 1974, Sugar and coronary disease, in Controversy in Internal Medicine. II ( F. J. Ingelfinger, R. V. Ebert, M. Finland, and A. S. Reiman, eds.), pp. 199–207, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Zaidman, J. L., Julsary, A., Kook, A. I., Szeinberg, A., Wallis, K., and Azizi, E., 1971, Abetalipoproteinemia in acrodermatitis enteropathica, New Engl. J. Med 284: 1387.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1977 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Klevay, L.M. (1977). The Role of Copper and Zinc in Cholesterol Metabolism. In: Draper, H.H. (eds) Advances in Nutritional Research. Advances in Nutritional Research, vol 1. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9928-5_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9928-5_9
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-9930-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-9928-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive