Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Cognitive Determinants of Defense Mechanisms

  • Chapter
The Concept of Defense Mechanisms in Contemporary Psychology

Abstract

Defense Mechanisms (DMs) are a unique set of mental operations, first described by Freud (1923/1961, 1896/1962, 1933/1964), elaborated by Anna Freud (1966), and further developed in recent decades (e.g., Cramer, 1988; Kline, 1987; Marton, 1988; Schafer, 1987; Singer, 1990). Yet, despite their popularity, little has been learned about their acquisition as strategies for conflict resolution, their selection, cognitive roots, impact on overt behavior, and relation to personality traits.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abelson, R.P. (1968) A summary of hypotheses on modes of resolution. In R.P. Abelson, E. Aronson, W.J. McGuire, T.M. Newcomb, M.J. Rosenberg, & P.H. Tannenbaum (Eds.), Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook (pp. 716–720). Skokie, IL: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J.S. (1968) A framework for the study of modes of resolving inconsistency. In R.P. Abelson, E. Aronson, W.J. McGuire, T.M. Newcomb, M.J. Rosenberg, & P.H. Tannenbaum (Eds.), Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook (pp. 655–669). Skokie, IL: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980) Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnon, R. & Kreitler, S. (1984) Effects of meaning training on overcoming functional fixedness. Current Psychological Research and Review, 3, 11–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Assor, A., Aronoff, J., & Messe, L.A. (1986) An experimental test of defensive processes in impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 644–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breier, G. (1980) Effects of cognitive orientation on behavior under threat. Master’s thesis, Department of Psychology, Tel Aviv University (summarized in Kreitler & Kreitler, 1982, pp. 137–140).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bugenthal, D.E. (1974) Interpretation of naturally occurring discrepancies between words and intonation: Modes of inconsistency resolution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,30, 125–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bugenthal, D.E., Love, L.R., Kaswan, J.W., & April, C. (1971) Verbal—nonverbal conflict in parental messages to normal and disturbed children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77, 6–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caplan, G. (1981) Mastery of stress. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 413–420.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cermale, T.L. & Rosenfeld, A.A. (1987) Therapeutic considerations with adult children of alcoholics. Advances in Alcoholism and Substance Abuse, 6, 17–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chomsky, N. (1972) Language and mind (enlarged ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jouanouich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colby, K.M. & Gilbert, J.P. (1964) Programming a computer model of neurosis. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1, 405–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cramer, P. (1988) The Defense Mechanism Inventory: A review of research and discussion of the scales. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 142–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeNike, L.D. & Tiber, N. (1968) Neurotic behavior. In P. London & D. Rosen-han (Eds.), Foundations of abnormal psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L.R., Lipman, R.S., Rickels, K., Ulenhuth, E.H., & Covi, L. (1974) The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): A measure of primary symptom dimensions. In P. Pichot (Ed.), Psychological measurements in psychopharmacology: Modern problems in pharmacopsychiatry: Vol. 7 (pp. 79–110). Basel: Karger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, N.F. (1981) Preconscious processing. Chichester, England: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eldar, S. (1976) Cognitive orientation and the perception of incongruent communi-cation. Master’s thesis, Department of Psychology, Tel Aviv University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellsworth, G.A., Strain, G.W., Strain, J.J., & Vaillant, G.E. (1986) Defensive maturity ratings and sustained weight loss in obesity. Psychosomatics, 27,772–781.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenichel, O. (1945) The psychoanalytic theory of neurosis. New York: Norton. Freud, A. (1966) The ego and the mechanisms of defense (rev. ed). Madison, CT: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1936) The problem of anxiety. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1957) Repression. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of S. Freud: Vol. 14 (pp. 141–158). London: Hogarth Press. (Originally published in 1915)

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1961) The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of S. Freud: Vol. 19 (pp. 3–66). London: Hogarth Press. (Originally published in 1923)

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1962) Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defense. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of S. Freud: Vol. 3 (pp. 162–185). London: The Hogarth Press. (Originally published in 1896)

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1964) New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of S. Freud: Vol. 22 (pp. 3–182). London: Hogarth Press. (Originally published in 1933)

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1964) Analysis terminable and interminable. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of S. Freud: Vol. 23 (pp. 211–253). London: Hogarth Press. (Originally published in 1937)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs, J.T. (1987) Identity and marginality issues in the treatment of biracial adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 265–278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, S.E. (1986) Sex roles in addiction: Defense or deficit? International Journal of the Addictions, 21, 1307–1312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grzegolowska-Klarkowska, H. & Zolnierczyk, D. (1988) Defense of self-esteem, defense of self-consistency: A new voice in an old controversy. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6, 171–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardyck, J.A. & Kardush, M. (1968) A modest model for dissonance reduction. In R.P. Abelson, E. Aronson, W.J. McGuire, T.M. Newcomb, M.J. Rosenberg, & P.H. Tannenbaum (Eds.), Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook (pp. 684–692). Skokie, IL: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelman, H.C. & Baron, R.M. (1968) Determinants of modes of resolving inconsistency dilemmas: A functional analysis. In R.P. Abelson, E. Aronson, W.J. McGuire, T.M. Newcomb, M.J. Rosenberg, & P.H. Tannenbaum (Eds.),Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook (pp. 670–683). Skokie, IL: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, P. (1987) The scientific status of the DMT [Defense Mechanism Test]. British Journal of Medical Psychology,60, 53–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kragh, U. (1984) Defense mechanisms manifested in perceptgenesis. In W.D. Fröhlich, G. Smith, J.G. Draguns, & U. Hentschel (Eds.), Psychological processes in cognition and personality (pp. 165–170). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Chemerinski, A. (1988) The cognitive orientation of obesity. International Journal of Obesity, 12, 403–412.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1964) Modes of action in the psychodramatic role test. International Journal of Sociometry and Sociatry,4, 10–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1968) The validation of psychodramatic behavior

    Google Scholar 

  • against behavior in life. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 41, 185–192. Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1969) Cognitive orientation and defense mechanisms.

    Google Scholar 

  • Research Bulletin (RB-69–23), Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1972) The cognitive determinants of defensive be-

    Google Scholar 

  • havior. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11, 359–372. Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1976) Cognitive orientation and behavior. New York:Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1977) Cognitive habilitation-by-meaning of aphasic patients and imbecile children. Invited address, celebrations of the 500th anniversary of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1982) The theory of cognitive orientation: Widening the scope of behavior prediction. In B. Maher & W.B. Maher (Eds.), Progress in experimental personality research: Vol. 11 (pp. 101–169). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1986) Types of curiosity behaviors and their cognitive determinants. Archives of Psychology, 138, 233–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1987) The motivational and cognitive determinants of individual planning. Genetic,Social and General Psychology Monographs,113, 81–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1988a) The cognitive approach to motivation in retarded individuals. In N.W. Bray (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation: Vol. 15 (pp. 81–123). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1988b) Horizontal decalage: A problem and its resolution. Cognitive Development, 4, 89–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1988c) Trauma and anxiety: The cognitive approach. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1, 35–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990a) The cognitive foundations of personality traits. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1990b) Psychosemantic foundations of creativity. In K.J. Gilhooly, M. Keane, R. Logie, & G. Erdos (Eds.), Lines of thought: Reflections on the psychology of thinking: Vol. 1 (pp. 15–28). Chichester, England: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990c) Cognitive orientation and sexual dysfunctions in women. Annals of Sex Research, 3, 75–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1990d) Cognitive primacy, cognitive behavior guidance, and their implications for cognitive therapy. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 4, 151–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990e) The cognitive approach to personality. Unpublished book manuscript. Tel Aviv University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1991) Cognitive orientation and physical disease or health. European Journal of Personality, 5, 109–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (in press-a) Cognitive orientation and disorders of the menstrual cycle. Archives of Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (in press-b) Motivational and cognitive determinants of exploration. In H. Keller & K. Schneider (Eds.), Curiosity and exploration:.

    Google Scholar 

  • Theoreti cal perspectives, research fields and applications. New York: Springer. Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (in press-c) The cognitive rehabilitation of severely retarded children. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S., Kreitler, H., & Carasso, R. (1987) Cognitive orientation as predictor of pain relief following acupuncture. Pain,28, 323–341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S., Kreitler, H., & Schwartz, R. (1991) Cognitive orientation and genital infections in young women. Women and Health,17, 49–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S., Kreitler, H., & Wanounou, V. (1987–1988) Cognitive modification of test performance in schizophrenics and normals. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 7, 227–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreitler, S., Schwartz, R., & Kreitler, H. (1987) The cognitive orientation of expressive communicability in schizophrenics and normals. Journal of Communication Disorders, 24, 73–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R.S. & Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipowski, Z.J. (1970–1971) Physical illness, the individual and the coping process. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 1, 91–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCrae, R.R. & Costa, P.T. (1986) Personality, coping and coping effectiveness in an adult sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 385–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marton, F.K. (1988) Defenses: Invincible and vincible. Clinical Social Work Journal, 16, 143–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R.H. (Ed.) (1977) Coping with physical illness: Vol. 1. New York: Plenum. Moos, R.H. (Ed.) (1984) Coping with physical illness: Vol. 2,New perspectives. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munroe, R.L. (1956) Schools of psychoanalytic thought (3rd printing). New York: Dryden Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L.I. & Schooler, C. (1978) The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19, 2–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1951) Play, dreams,and imitation in childhood.New York: Norton. Polya, G. (1954) Induction and analogy in mathematics: Vol. 1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polya, G. (1957) How to solve it. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R.J. (1986) The pathological gambler’s system for self-deception. Journal of Gambling Behavior, 2, 108–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahoo, F.M., Sia N., & Panada, E. (1987) Individualism, collectivism and coping styles. Journal of Psychological Researches, 31,77–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, R. (1987) Self-deception, defense, and narration. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 10, 319–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. (1975) Helplessness. San Francisco: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J.L. (Ed.) (1990) Repression and dissociation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, C.R. (1988) From defenses to self-protection: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,6, 155–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tipton, R.M. & Riebsame, W.E. (1987) Beliefs about smoking and health: Their measurement and relationship to smoking behavior. Addictive Behaviors, 12, 217–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillant, G.E. (1983) Childhood environment and maturity of defense mechanisms. In D. Magnusson & V.L. Allen (Eds.), Human development: An interactional perspective (pp. 343–352). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J.H., & Jackson, D.D. (1967) Pragmatics of human communication. Palo Alto, CA: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinberger, D.A., Schwartz, G.E., & Davidson, R.J. (1979) Low anxious, high anxious, and repressive coping styles: Psychometric patterns and behavioral and physiological responses to stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,88, 369–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weisman, A.D. (1979) Coping with cancer. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westhoff, K. & Halbach-Suarez, C. (1989) Cognitive orientation and the pre-diction of decisions in a medical examination context. European Journal of Personality, 3, 61–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, R.W. (1974) Strategies of adaptation: An attempt at systematic description. In G.V. Coelho, D.A. Hamburg, & J.E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and adaptation (pp. 47–48). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wickelgren, W.A. (1974) How to solve problems. San Francisco: Freeman. Winegar, N., Stephens, T.A., & Varney, E.D. (1987) Alcoholics Anonymous and the alcoholic defense structure. Social Case Work, 68, 223–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zakay, D., Bar-El, Z., & Kreitler, S. (1984) Cognitive orientation and changing the impulsivity of children. British Journal of Educational Psychology,54, 40–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zemet, R. (1976) Cognitive orientation theory and patterns of behavior in con-fluctuai situations in schizophrenic and normal subjects. Master’s thesis, Department of Psychology, Tel Aviv University (summarized in Kreitler & Kreitler, 1982, pp. 150–153).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Shulamith Kreitler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hans Kreitler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Personality Psychology, University of Leiden, 2300 RB, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Uwe Hentschel Ph.D.

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Lund, S-22350, Lund, Sweden

    Gudmund J. W. Smith Ph.D.

  3. Center for Psychotherapy Research, D-70597, Stuttgart 70, Germany

    Wolfram Ehlers M.D.

  4. Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, 16802, University Park, PA, USA

    Juris G. Draguns Ph.D.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1993 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kreitler, S., Kreitler, H. (1993). The Cognitive Determinants of Defense Mechanisms. In: Hentschel, U., Smith, G.J.W., Ehlers, W., Draguns, J.G. (eds) The Concept of Defense Mechanisms in Contemporary Psychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8303-1_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8303-1_11

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-8305-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-8303-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation