Abstract
There is hardly a field in materials science where the physical nature of the surface is not an important feature. for example, in fatigue fracture, cracks nucleate at the surfaces of materials and the rate at which they nucleate is greatly influenced by the detailed topography of the surfaces. in the field of thin-film devices, the manufacturing tendency has been to reduce the size of electronic components. Surface-to- volume ratios are now exceedingly high. Young points out that we are not far from the point where we can anticipate devices employing single layers of atoms.(1) However, the device industry, which presently employs films in the 10- to 100-Å range, suffers very high failure rates due to surface imperfections, stacking-fault intersections, voids in the films, thermally induced pits, and multiple steps. as a result of these deficiencies, large resources have been employed to control the imperfections by close control of processing variables. in other areas, elaborate polishing, cleaning, and smoothing techniques have been developed in an effort to eliminate the variability associated with surfaces. However, none of these efforts can improve upon a detailed knowledge of the actual surface topography.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
R. D. Young, Surface microtopography, Phys. Today 24, 42–48 (1971).
O. Johari, in Characterization of Solid Surfaces (P. F. Kane and G. B. Larrabee, eds.) Scanning microscopy, Chapter 5, Plenum Press, New York (1974).
C. J. Cooke and P. Duncumb, Performance analysis of a combined electron microscope and electron probe microanalyser, EMMA, in Fifth International Congress on X-ray Optics and Microanalysis (G. Mollenstedt and K. H. Gaukler, eds.) pp. 245–247, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1969).
M. H. Jacobs, Microstructural studies with a combined electron microscope and electron probe microanalyser (EMMA-3) Proc. 25th Anniv. Meeting EMAG Inst. Phys. (1971).
G. A. Hutchins, Electron probe microanalysis, in Characterization of Solid Surfaces (P. F. Kane and G. B. Larrabee, eds.) Chapter 18, Plenum Press, New York (1974).
C. Klemperer, Electron Optics, Cambridge University Press, London (1953).
G. Thomas, Transmission Electron Microscopy of Metals, J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1962).
R. Haine and V. E. Cosslett, The Electron Microscope, the Present State of the Art, Interscience, New York (1961).
R. D. Heidenreich, Fundamentals of Transmission Electron Microscopy, Interscience, New York (1964).
P. Grivet, Electron Optics, Pergamon, London (1965).
P. B. Hirsch, A. Howie, R. B. Nicholson, D. W. Pashley, and M. J. Whelan, Electron Microscopy of Thin Crystals, Butterworths, London (1965).
S. Amelinckx, The Direct Observation of Dislocations, Academic Press, London (1964).
S. Amelinckx (ed.), Modern Diffraction and Imaging Techniques in Material Science, North-Holland, Amsterdam (1970).
C. E. Hall, Introduction to Electron Microscopy, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (1966).
R. W. Wyckoff, Electron Microscopy, Technique, and Applications, Interscience, New York (1949).
D. Kay, Techniques for Electron Microscopy, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford (1961).
L. E. Thomas, Course notes in electron microscopy, Univ. of Pennsylvania (1971).
A. Howie, in Techniques for Electron Microscopy (D. Kay, ed.) pp. 438–440, F. A. Davis Co., Philadelphia (1965).
J. F. Nankivell, The theory of electron stereo microscopy, Optik 20, 171–198 (1963).
Handbook for Wild ST4 Mirror Stereoscope, P2 307e, Wild, Heerbrugg (1967).
A. Boyde, Observations on enamel and dentine by surface electron microscopy, J. Roy. Microscop. Soc. 86, 359–365 (1967).
A. Boyde, Practical problems and methods in three-dimensional analysis of scanning electron microscopy images, in Proceedings of the Third Annual Scanning Electron Microscopy Symposium, pp. 107–112, IIT Research Institute, Chicago (1970).
D. E. Bradley, J. S. Halliday, and W. Hirst, Stereoscopic reflection electron microscopy, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) 69, 484–486 (1956).
J. S. Halliday, Reflection electron microscopy, in Techniques for Electron Microscopy, pp. 306–324, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford (1961).
S. J. Jones and A. Boyde, Experimental studies on the interpretation of bone surfaces studied with SEM, in Proceedings of the Third Scanning Electron Microscopy Symposium pp. 195–200 IIT Research Institute, Chicago (1970).
M. P. E. Desvaux and P. Charsley, Slip lines on pure copper deformed in tension and compression, Mater. Sci. Eng. 4, 221–230 (1969).
P. Charsley and M. P. E. Desvaux, The behavior of Cu-12% Al under simple reversed stresses, Mater. Sci. Eng. 4, 211–220 (1969).
C. Laird and D. J. Duquette, Mechanisms of fatigue crack nucleation, in Proceedings of Corrosion Fatigue Conference, Storrs, Conn., pp. 88–117, N.A.C.E., Houston, Texas (1972).
M. P. E. Desvaux, A replica technique for measuring incremental slip step heights, J. Sci. Instr., Ser. 2, 1, 558–560 (1968).
G. A. Bassett, A new technique for decoration of cleavage and slip steps on ionic crystal surfaces, Phil. Mag. 3, 1042–1045 (1958).
H. Bethge, Oberflächenstrukturen und kristalbaufehler in elektronenmikroskopischen bild, untersucht am NaCl, Phys. Stat. Sol. 2, 3–27 (1962).
H. Bethge, Electron microscopic studies of surface structures and some relations to surface phenomena, Surf. Sci. 3, 33–41 (1964).
J. G. Allpress and J. V. Sanders, Decoration of facets on silver, Phil. Mag. 9, 645–658 (1964).
J. M. Finney, Univ. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and ARL, Melbourne, Australia, private communication (1970).
H. I. Aaronson, C. Laird, and K. R. Kinsman, Mechanisms of diffusional growth of precipitate crystals, in Phase Transformations, ASM, pp. 313–390 (1970).
P. Lukáš, M. Klesnil, J. Krejči, and P. Ryš, Substructure of persistent slip bands in cyclically deformed copper, Phys. Stat. Sol. 15, 71–82 (1966).
P. Lukaš, M. Klesnil, and J. Krejči, Dislocations and persistent slip bands in copper single crystals fatigued at low stress amplitude, Phys. Stat. Sol. 27, 545–558 (1968).
P. Lukaš and M. Klesnil, Dislocation structures in fatigued Cu-Zn single crystals, Phys. Stat. Sol. 37, 833–842 (1970).
P. Lukaš and M. Klesnil, Fatigue damage and resultant dislocation substructures, in Corrosion Fatigue Conference, Storrs, Conn., pp. 118–132, N.A.C.E., Houston, Texas (1972).
P. R. Swann, The dislocation distribution near the surface of deformed copper, Acta Met. 14, 900–903 (1966).
I. R. Kramer and L. J. Demer, The effect of surface removal on the plastic behavior of Al single crystals, Trans. AIME 221, 780–786 (1961).
I. R. Kramer, The effect of surface removal on the plastic flow characteristics of metals, Trans. AIME 227, 1003–1010(1963).
D. M. Turley, Dislocation substructures and strain distributions beneath machined surfaces of 70/30 brass, J. Inst. Metals 99, 271–277 (1971).
A. R. Thölen, On the ambiguity between Moiré fringes and the electron diffraction contrast from closely spaced dislocations, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a) 2, 537–550 (1970).
R. Sankaran and C. Laird, Studies of precipitate morphology and growth kinetics, unpublished work (1971).
C. Laird and H. I. Aaronson Direct observations of the thinning of θ2032 plates in Al-4% Cu by lateral movement of ledges J. Inst. Met. 96 222 1968
K. Shinohara, Behavior of misfit dislocations during interdiffusion, Ph.D. Thesis, Ohio State Univ. (1972).
K. E. Easterling and A. R. Thölen, A study of sintering using hot-stage electron microscopy, Met. Sci. J. 4, 130–135 (1970).
J. Weertman, Steady-state creep of crystals, J. Appl. Phys. 28, 1185–1189 (1957).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1974 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Laird, C. (1974). Electron Microscopy. In: Kane, P.F., Larrabee, G.B. (eds) Characterization of Solid Surfaces. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-4490-2_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-4490-2_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-4492-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-4490-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive